A Read that Compares and Contrasts APUSH Period 8 Vocabulary

40 min readMar 1, 2023

Created in collaboration with CHatGPT and focusing on the words, terms, and phrases either expressly mentioned in the P8 Key Concepts or logically flowing from it

This read contains various “APUSH vocabulary groupings,” with each grouping containing at least one APUSH P8 “need-to-know” word, term, or phrase.

I plan to put this read in front of my students when we begin to review for the annual exam. If you notice any glaring errors or omissions (or take issue with anything written) and wish to give me a heads-up, I can be reached at ppaccone@smusd.us.

Grouping #1

President Johnson’s Great Society
President Roosevelts New Deal
President Reagan’s Great Discovery

All three of these presidential initiatives are significant in American history as they represent major policy agendas aimed at addressing significant social, economic, and political challenges.

The New Deal was a set of policies and programs implemented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in response to the Great Depression, with the goal of providing economic relief (jobs), recovery (from the Great Depression, and reform (social security).
The Great Society, introduced by President Lyndon B. Johnson, aimed to address poverty, inequality, and social injustice through a range of programs and initiatives, such as Medicare and Medicaid, the Civil Rights Act, and the War on Poverty.
Ronald Reagan’s “Great Discovery” was his belief in supply-side economics, which emphasized tax cuts, deregulation, and reduced government spending as the key drivers of economic growth. This approach became known as Reaganomics and helped shape his economic policies during his presidency.

While the New Deal and Great Society were both focused on addressing social and economic challenges through government intervention and regulation, Reagan’s approach to economic policy represented a shift toward more conservative, market-driven (laissez-faire) solutions. The New Deal and Great Society aimed to address poverty and inequality through government programs and social welfare policies, while Reaganomics focused on reducing government intervention in the economy to stimulate private investment and growth.

Grouping #2

President Johnson’s Vietnam War policy
President Nixon’s Vietnam War policy

President Johnson’s Vietnam War policy involved a significant increase in US military involvement in Vietnam, with the goal of preventing the spread of communism and supporting the South Vietnamese government. This included the deployment of hundreds of thousands of US troops, as well as heavy bombing campaigns.

In contrast, President Nixon’s Vietnam War policy was characterized by a policy of “Vietnamization,” which involved gradually reducing US troop levels in Vietnam and transferring responsibility for the war effort to the South Vietnamese government. Nixon also sought to negotiate a peace settlement with North Vietnam, and pursued a policy of “détente” with the Soviet Union and China to try to ease tensions and reduce the likelihood of further conflict.

Despite these differences, both Johnson and Nixon’s Vietnam War policies were ultimately unsuccessful in achieving their goals of establishing a stable and democratic South Vietnam and preventing the spread of communism. The Vietnam War ended in 1975 with the fall of Saigon to North Vietnamese forces.

Grouping #3

Operation Rolling Thunder
Vietnamization

Operation Rolling Thunder and Vietnamization were both US strategies in the Vietnam War, but they had different goals and approaches.

Operation Rolling Thunder was a bombing campaign launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1965 that aimed to weaken North Vietnam’s ability to wage war and force them to negotiate a peace settlement. The campaign involved extensive aerial bombardment of military targets, infrastructure, and supply lines in North Vietnam. However, the campaign was not successful in achieving its goals and continued until 1968.

Vietnamization, on the other hand, was a policy introduced by President Richard Nixon in 1969 that aimed to gradually withdraw US troops from Vietnam and transfer responsibility for the war effort to the South Vietnamese government. The policy involved providing military equipment and training to the South Vietnamese army and encouraging them to take a more active role in fighting the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces. The goal was to allow the South Vietnamese government to stand on its own and reduce US involvement in the war.

While both strategies aimed to end the Vietnam War, Operation Rolling Thunder was a military campaign focused on weakening the enemy through force, while Vietnamization was a political strategy aimed at achieving a negotiated settlement and reducing US involvement in the conflict. Ultimately, neither strategy was successful in ending the war or achieving US objectives in Vietnam.

Grouping #4

Civil Rights Movement of the 1940s and 1950s
Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s

The Civil Rights Movement of the 1940s and 1950s was a period of activism and legal challenges aimed at ending segregation and discrimination against African Americans in the United States. It was characterized by a series of legal challenges, including landmark cases such as Brown v. Board of Education, which ended segregation in public schools, and the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which ended segregation on public buses.

During this time period, the movement was largely led by organizations such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and figures such as Thurgood Marshall, who became the first African American Supreme Court justice. The movement also involved grassroots activism, such as sit-ins, boycotts, and other nonviolent protests.

The Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s built upon the successes of the previous decade, but also marked a shift towards more radical forms of activism. This was in part due to frustration with the slow pace of change and continued violence and discrimination against African Americans. The movement was characterized by figures such as Malcolm X and the Black Panthers, who advocated for more militant forms of resistance.

The 1960s also saw the rise of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and other youth-led organizations, who played a significant role in organizing protests and sit-ins. The movement culminated in the passage of major civil rights legislation, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which ended legal segregation and guaranteed voting rights for African Americans.

Overall, while the Civil Rights Movement of the 1940s and 1950s laid the foundation for later successes, the movement of the 1960s marked a more radical shift towards direct action and greater demands for equality and justice. Both movements were instrumental in bringing attention to the issue of civil rights and promoting social change in the United States.

Grouping #5

The Civil Rights Act
The Voting Rights Act
Brown v. Board

The Civil Rights Act, Voting Rights Act, and Brown v. Board all relate to the fight for equal rights and opportunities for African Americans in the United States.

Brown v. Board was a landmark Supreme Court case in 1954 that declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional, paving the way for desegregation in other public institutions.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, and ended racial segregation in public places.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 eliminated barriers that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote, such as literacy tests and poll taxes.

While all three are significant milestones in the civil rights movement, Brown v. Board was a legal (judicial branch) victory that set the precedent for ending segregation, while the Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act were legislative branch victories that aimed to address broader forms of discrimination and ensure equal access to opportunities for all.

Grouping #6

First Wave Feminism
Second Wave Feminism

First Wave Feminism and Second Wave Feminism were two distinct periods of feminist activism in the US. First Wave Feminism focused on securing women’s right to vote and legal equality, primarily during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Second Wave Feminism emerged in the 1960s and 70s and focused on a broader range of issues, including reproductive rights, workplace discrimination, and domestic violence.

Grouping #7

Martin Luther King’s Philosophy
Malcolm X’s Philosophy

Martin Luther King’s philosophy was based on nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience as a means of achieving racial equality and justice for African Americans. He believed in peaceful protest and dialogue as a means of effecting change and advocated for racial integration and equal opportunity for all. Malcolm X, on the other hand, was a proponent of Black nationalism and separatism. He believed in fighting for Black liberation and self-determination by any means necessary, including violence if necessary. He rejected nonviolence and advocated for armed self-defense against racist oppression.

Grouping #8

Cold War
Hot War

The Cold War was a state of political and military tension between the United States and the Soviet Union following World War II, characterized by ideological conflict and strategic competition. It was called “cold” because it never escalated into a direct military confrontation between the two superpowers. Instead, they engaged in a series of proxy wars and arms races, such as the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the arms race of the 1950s and 60s.

In contrast, a hot war refers to a direct military conflict between two or more countries. The term is often used to describe the major military conflicts of the 20th century, such as World War I and World War II, which involved the mobilization of millions of soldiers and the use of devastating weapons. Unlike the Cold War, hot wars involve direct military action and often result in large-scale destruction, loss of life, and lasting geopolitical consequences.

Grouping #9

Big Stick Diplomacy
Dollar Diplomacy
Moral Diplomacy

Big Stick Diplomacy, Dollar Diplomacy, and Moral Diplomacy were three different foreign policy approaches adopted by the US during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Big Stick Diplomacy was a policy championed by President Theodore Roosevelt that emphasized the use of military power and threats to protect US interests and extend US influence in the world. This policy was most famously demonstrated by Roosevelt’s decision to send the US Navy’s Great White Fleet on a world tour in 1907.
Dollar Diplomacy was a policy championed by President William Howard Taft that emphasized the use of economic power to further US interests and influence abroad. This policy involved encouraging US businesses to invest in foreign countries, particularly in Latin America, and providing financial and military support to countries that supported US interests.
Moral Diplomacy was a policy championed by President Woodrow Wilson that emphasized the promotion of democracy, human rights, and international cooperation. This policy was based on Wilson’s belief that the US had a moral obligation to promote these values around the world and was reflected in the US’s involvement in World War I and the formation of the League of Nations.

Overall, these three foreign policy approaches represent different ways in which the US sought to extend its influence and protect its interests in the world. Big Stick Diplomacy and Dollar Diplomacy were more focused on using military and economic power, respectively, to achieve these goals, while Moral Diplomacy placed greater emphasis on promoting American values and ideals as a means of achieving global stability and cooperation.

Grouping #10

Monroe Doctrine
Roosevelt Corollary
Truman Doctrine
Eisenhower Doctrine
Nixon Doctrine

All of these are foreign policy doctrines that were articulated by U.S. Presidents to assert American influence in the world and protect American interests abroad (with a foreign policy doctrine being in very simple terms, a set of rules that American foreign policy leaders use when dealing with other countries.

The Monroe Doctrine was a US foreign policy statement issued in 1823 that asserted that the US would not tolerate European interference in the affairs of the independent nations of the Americas.
The Roosevelt Corollary, announced by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904, expanded on the Monroe Doctrine by declaring that the US had the right to intervene in the affairs of Latin American countries to prevent European intervention and maintain stability.
The Truman Doctrine, announced by President Harry Truman in 1947, declared that the US would provide military and economic aid to countries threatened by communism, marking the beginning of the US policy of containment during the Cold War.
The Eisenhower Doctrine, announced by President Dwight Eisenhower in 1957, extended the Truman Doctrine by authorizing US military intervention in the Middle East to protect US interests and prevent the spread of communism.
The Nixon Doctrine, announced by President Richard Nixon in 1969, declared that the US would provide military aid to its allies but would expect them to take more responsibility for their own defense, marking a shift away from direct US military involvement in foreign conflicts.

Grouping #11

First Red Scare
Second Red Scare

The First Red Scare occurred in the aftermath of World War I and the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. It was characterized by widespread fear and paranoia about the spread of communism in the United States. The government, led by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, launched a series of raids and arrests (the Palmer Raids) targeting suspected radicals, resulting in the deportation of hundreds of foreign-born residents and the suppression of free speech and civil liberties.

The Second Red Scare, also known as the McCarthy era, occurred in the late 1940s and early 1950s and was fueled by fears of communist infiltration and subversion in American society. Senator Joseph McCarthy and others (the House unAmerican Activities Committee — HUAC) used unsubstantiated allegations and smear campaigns to accuse individuals of communist sympathies or membership in the Communist Party, resulting in widespread intimidation and persecution. The era saw a wave of loyalty oaths, blacklisting, and censorship, as well as investigations into alleged communist infiltration of government agencies, Hollywood, and other sectors of American society.

Grouping #12

The Sunbelt Migration
The First Great Migration
The Second Great Migration

The Sunbelt Migration, the First Great Migration, and the Second Great Migration were all significant population movements in the United States that had a profound impact on the nation’s social, economic, and political landscape.

The Sunbelt Migration refers to the movement of millions of Americans from the northeastern and midwestern regions of the United States to the southern and western states between the 1940s and the 1970s. The migration was driven by a variety of factors, including the availability of jobs in the defense and aerospace industries, lower living costs, and warmer climates. The Sunbelt Migration contributed to the growth of cities such as Phoenix, Houston, and Atlanta, and helped to shift the balance of political power in the United States towards the South and West.
The First Great Migration occurred in the early 20th century, primarily between 1910 and 1930, when an estimated 1.6 million African Americans left the rural South to seek better economic opportunities in northern and Midwestern cities such as Chicago, Detroit, and New York. The migration was sparked by the growth of the industrial economy in the North and the decline of the agricultural economy in the South. The First Great Migration transformed the demographics of many Northern cities, leading to the growth of African American communities and the emergence of new forms of cultural expression such as jazz and the Harlem Renaissance.
The Second Great Migration took place between 1940 and 1970, during which time approximately 5 million African Americans left the rural South for northern and western cities. The Second Great Migration was driven by a combination of factors, including the mechanization of agriculture, the growth of the defense industry during World War II, and the increasing availability of better-paying jobs in the North and West. The Second Great Migration had a profound impact on American politics and culture, contributing to the emergence of the civil rights movement and the growth of African American political power in cities such as Detroit, Chicago, and Cleveland.

In terms of similarities, all three migrations involved large-scale movements of people across long distances in search of economic opportunity and a better quality of life. Additionally, all three migrations contributed to the growth and transformation of American cities and had significant social and political consequences.

However, the migrations also differed in important ways. The Sunbelt Migration was primarily driven by economic factors and involved the movement of primarily white Americans, while the Great Migrations were primarily driven by racial discrimination and involved the movement of primarily African Americans. Additionally, the Great Migrations were marked by significant social and political resistance, including violent backlash from white Americans, while the Sunbelt Migration was generally more accepted and less controversial.

Grouping #13

Feminists during the 1960s and 1970s
Antifeminists during the 1960s and 1970s

During the 1960s and 1970s, the feminist movement emerged as a powerful force for social change in the United States. However, this movement also faced opposition from those who were opposed to the idea of gender equality and women’s rights.

Feminists during the 1960s and 1970s were focused on promoting women’s rights and achieving greater gender equality. They sought to challenge traditional gender roles, which limited women’s opportunities and reinforced gender-based stereotypes. Feminists also fought for reproductive rights, including the right to access contraception and abortion, and for equal pay and job opportunities for women. They organized marches, protests, and other forms of activism to raise awareness about these issues and to advocate for change.

On the other hand, antifeminists during the 1960s and 1970s were often characterized by their opposition to feminism and the idea of gender equality. They believed that traditional gender roles were natural and necessary, and that efforts to challenge these roles threatened the stability of society. Antifeminists also opposed abortion rights and other reproductive rights for women, as well as efforts to expand women’s participation in the workforce and in politics.

Some antifeminists organized counter-protests and demonstrations to challenge feminist activism. They also used the media to promote their message, arguing that feminism was a threat to traditional values and the family unit. Antifeminists also used language and rhetoric to undermine the legitimacy of the feminist movement, using terms like “feminazi” to suggest that feminists were extremists who sought to impose their beliefs on others.

In summary, feminists during the 1960s and 1970s sought to advance women’s rights and gender equality, while antifeminists opposed these efforts and sought to uphold traditional gender roles and values. While the feminist movement achieved significant gains during this period, opposition from antifeminists continued to shape the political and social landscape of the United States, and debates about gender equality continue to this day.

Grouping #14

The Legislative Branch During the Civil Rights Movement
The Executive Branch During the Civil Rights Movement
The Judicial Branch During the Civil Rights Movement

All three branches of the US Government are credited with having had a positive impact on the post World War II African American Civil Rights Movement.

The Judicial Branch, which includes the Supreme Court and the federal courts, played a crucial role in interpreting the Constitution and ensuring that civil rights laws were upheld. The Supreme Court issued a number of landmark decisions during the Civil Rights Movement, including Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which struck down the doctrine of “separate but equal” in public schools, and Loving v. Virginia (1967), which struck down state laws prohibiting interracial marriage. The federal courts also played an important role in enforcing civil rights laws, and many cases related to civil rights were brought before the courts during this period.

The Legislative Branch, which includes the Senate and the House of Representatives, was responsible for passing laws related to civil rights. Some of the most important legislative achievements of the Civil Rights Movement include the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968. These laws prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in a variety of areas, including employment, education, voting, and housing. The Legislative Branch was also responsible for creating the Civil Rights Commission, which investigated cases of discrimination and made recommendations for policy changes.

The Executive Branch, which includes the President and the various departments and agencies of the federal government, was responsible for enforcing the laws related to civil rights. The branch played a particularly significant role under the leadership of Presidents Harry Truman Dweight Eisenhower, and Lyndon B. Johnson.

In 1948, President Truman issued Executive Order 9981, which desegregated the United States military. This was a significant move towards racial equality in the armed forces, which had previously been segregated. The executive order stated that “there shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion or national origin.”
In 1957, President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent federal troops to Little Rock, Arkansas to enforce a court order to desegregate the city’s schools. Governor Orval Faubus had called in the Arkansas National Guard to prevent African American students from attending a newly integrated high school. Eisenhower’s decision to send in troops to enforce the court order was a significant move towards enforcing desegregation in the United States.
In the 1960s, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed both the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which were significant pieces of legislation that provided legal protections for African Americans and helped to dismantle discriminatory practices in the United States. Johnson had been a strong supporter of civil rights throughout his presidency, and these laws were a significant accomplishment of the civil rights movement.

In summary, all three branches of the United States government played important roles in advancing the cause of civil rights during the Civil Rights Movement. The Legislative Branch passed important laws prohibiting discrimination, the Executive Branch enforced those laws, and the Judicial Branch interpreted the Constitution and ensured that civil rights laws were upheld. Together, these branches of government helped to transform American society and advance the cause of equality for all people.

Grouping #15

Watergate Scandal
Teapot Dome Scandal
Crédit Mobilier Scandal
Iran-Contra Affair
Bill Clinton–Monica Lewinsky Affair

The Watergate scandal was a political scandal that occurred during the presidency of Richard Nixon in the 1970s. It involved the illegal wiretapping of the Democratic National Committee headquarters and subsequent attempts to cover it up. The scandal led to the resignation of Nixon in 1974 and had a significant impact on American politics and public trust in government.

TThe Teapot Dome scandal was a political scandal in the 1920s during the administration of President Warren G. Harding. It involved the secret leasing of federal oil reserves to private companies in exchange for bribes. The scandal led to the imprisonment of several government officials and highlighted corruption within the federal government.

The Crédit Mobilier scandal was a political scandal in the 1870s that involved the bribery of government officials by a construction company to secure contracts for the building of the transcontinental railroad. The scandal led to the censure of two members of Congress and contributed to public outrage over corruption in politics.

The Iran-Contra affair was a political scandal in the 1980s during the Reagan administration. It involved the secret sale of weapons to Iran in exchange for the release of American hostages and the use of proceeds from those sales to fund Contra rebels in Nicaragua, despite a Congressional ban. The scandal led to the indictment and conviction of several government officials, including Oliver North.

The Bill Clinton–Monica Lewinsky affair was a political scandal in the late 1990s during the Clinton administration. It involved an extramarital affair between President Bill Clinton and White House intern Monica Lewinsky. The scandal led to Clinton’s impeachment by the House of Representatives for perjury and obstruction of justice, although he was acquitted by the Senate.

Grouping #16

Marshall Plan
Treaty of Versailles (reparations provision)

The Marshall Plan and the Treaty of Versailles (reparations provision) are two significant events in the history of international relations, particularly in the aftermath of World War II. While both aimed to rebuild and stabilize war-torn countries, they differed in their approach, scale, and impact.

The Marshall Plan was a U.S. initiative launched in 1948 to provide financial and economic aid to European countries devastated by World War II. It offered more than $13 billion in economic assistance to Western European countries over four years to rebuild their economies, infrastructure, and institutions. The plan aimed to create stable and prosperous allies for the United States while also preventing the spread of communism.

In contrast, the Treaty of Versailles was a peace settlement imposed on Germany in 1919 after World War I. One of its most controversial provisions was the requirement for Germany to pay massive reparations to the Allies as compensation for the war’s damages. The reparations amounted to billions of dollars, which Germany struggled to pay and contributed to economic instability and political unrest in the country. The Treaty also included provisions that imposed severe restrictions on Germany’s military, territory, and sovereignty.

The Marshall Plan and the Treaty of Versailles differed in their approach to post-war reconstruction. The Marshall Plan aimed to promote economic recovery and growth through direct financial assistance and investment, while the Treaty of Versailles imposed financial penalties on Germany, which caused economic and political turmoil. The Marshall Plan was also a voluntary initiative that aimed to rebuild the economy and promote stability, whereas the Treaty of Versailles was a punitive measure imposed on Germany after its defeat.

In summary, the Marshall Plan and the Treaty of Versailles were two significant events in international relations aimed at rebuilding and stabilizing war-torn countries. However, while the Marshall Plan offered financial and economic assistance to rebuild Western Europe, the Treaty of Versailles imposed reparations and penalties on Germany, contributing to economic instability and political unrest

Grouping #17

Baby Boom
Roaring Twenties
Era of Good Feeling

The Baby Boom, Roaring Twenties, and Era of Good Feeling are significant periods in American history that shaped the country’s social, cultural, and economic landscape. Although these periods occurred in different times and contexts, they share some similarities and differences.

The Baby Boom was a period of high birth rates in the United States between 1946 and 1964, following World War II. The post-war economic boom, the GI Bill, and the growing middle class contributed to the Baby Boom. This period saw a significant increase in consumerism, suburbanization, and women’s roles in the workforce.
The Roaring Twenties was a period of economic prosperity and cultural change in the United States from 1920 to 1929. It was marked by significant developments in art, music, fashion, and entertainment, and a shift towards more liberal social attitudes. The period was characterized by the rise of jazz music, prohibition, flapper culture, and the stock market boom.
The Era of Good Feeling was a period of political harmony and economic growth in the United States from 1815 to 1825, following the War of 1812. The period was marked by significant infrastructure developments, such as the Erie Canal, and advancements in manufacturing and transportation. The period was also characterized by the decline of the Federalist Party, which led to a period of one-party rule and political stability.

One similarity between these periods is that they were marked by significant economic growth and prosperity. They were also periods of significant cultural and social change, with a shift towards more liberal attitudes and increased consumerism. However, they differ in their context and impact on society. The Baby Boom was marked by significant demographic changes, the Roaring Twenties by cultural and social change, and the Era of Good Feeling by political stability and economic growth.

In summary, the Baby Boom, Roaring Twenties, and Era of Good Feeling were significant periods in American history that share some similarities but differ in their context and impact on society. They were marked by significant economic growth, cultural and social change, and political stability.

Grouping #18

The migration from the cities to the suburbs
The migration from the rural to the urban

In American history, the migration from cities to suburbs began in the post-World War II era as returning soldiers and their families sought affordable housing and the promise of the American Dream. This movement was largely driven by the white middle class, who were seeking more space, better schools, and a sense of community. The development of the interstate highway system and federally-backed home loans also contributed to this trend.

On the other hand, the migration from rural areas to urban areas was a significant feature of the 1920s in America, as people sought the promise of better economic opportunities in cities. This led to the growth of industrial cities like Detroit, Chicago, and New York City. However, this movement also had negative consequences, such as overcrowding and poor living conditions in urban tenements.

In both cases, these migration patterns had significant social, economic, and political impacts on American society. The growth of suburban communities helped to create new cultural norms and identities for the middle class, while the influx of rural migrants into urban areas contributed to the growth of labor unions and the rise of progressive political movements.

Grouping #19

Hippies (aka the counterculture)
Flappers

Flappers and hippies were two distinct subcultures that emerged during different time periods and had different values and ideals.

Flappers were young women in the 1920s who rejected traditional gender roles and societal norms. They often wore short skirts, bobbed their hair, and drank and smoked in public. Flappers represented a rebellion against the conservative values of the previous generation and were associated with jazz music, speakeasies, and the excitement of urban life.
Hippies, on the other hand, were a counterculture that emerged in the 1960s as a response to the perceived conformity, materialism, and militarism of mainstream American society. They rejected consumerism and embraced communal living, environmentalism, and psychedelic drugs. Hippies were associated with the peace movement, protests against the Vietnam War, and a general rejection of traditional values.

In terms of similarities, both subcultures represented a rejection of mainstream values and sought to challenge social norms. They both embraced new forms of art, music, and fashion that reflected their rebellious spirit. Additionally, both groups experienced backlash from more conservative elements of society who saw them as threats to traditional values.

In conclusion, while there are some similarities between flappers and hippies, they were distinct subcultures that emerged in different time periods and had different values and ideals. Flappers were associated with the 1920s and represented a rebellion against traditional gender roles, while hippies were associated with the 1960s and represented a rejection of mainstream American values.

Grouping #20

The ReconstructIon Era promises
The Post World War II Effort to Fulfill the Reconstruction Era promises

The 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments to the US Constitution were a set of Reconstruction Era promises aimed at addressing issues of slavery, citizenship, and voting rights for African Americans.

The 13th Amendment abolished slavery and involuntary servitude
The 14th Amendment granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the US and gave all persons the right to be treated equally.
The 15th Amendment granted voting rights to African American men.

In the 1960s, America sought to fulfill these promises by passing landmark civil rights legislation, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. These laws aimed to end segregation in public places, ban discrimination in employment and education, and protect voting rights for African Americans.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in employment, public accommodations, and education. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 aimed to overcome legal barriers to voting for African Americans by prohibiting discriminatory voting practices and authorizing federal oversight of voting practices in areas with a history of voter suppression.

While these laws were crucial steps towards fulfilling the promises of the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments, progress was not always straightforward. Ongoing resistance and backlash to civil rights reforms led to widespread violence and intimidation, such as the brutal police response to the peaceful Selma to Montgomery marches in 1965.

Despite these challenges, the 1960s marked a significant turning point in the struggle for civil rights and equality in America. The efforts to fulfill the Reconstruction Era promises were a crucial part of this struggle, and the legacy of these efforts continues to shape American society today. While challenges remain, ongoing activism and progress towards greater equality and civil rights serve as a testament to the importance of fulfilling these promises for all Americans.

Grouping #21

McCarthy Era loyalty oaths
McCarthy Era blacklisting
McCarthy Era censorship

The McCarthy era refers specifically to the period in US history during the 1950s when Senator Joseph McCarthy led a campaign to root out supposed communists and subversives from American society. The measures implemented during this period included loyalty oaths, blacklisting, and censorship.

Loyalty oaths were used extensively during the McCarthy era. They required government employees, as well as those seeking government employment or contracts, to swear that they were not members of the Communist Party or any other group deemed subversive by the government. Failure to take the oath or suspicion of disloyalty could result in job loss or even imprisonment.

Blacklisting was another tactic used during the McCarthy era. It involved the publication of lists of individuals and organizations suspected of communist sympathies, making it difficult or impossible for them to find work or conduct business. The blacklisting of actors, writers, and other artists in the entertainment industry was particularly well-known, as it resulted in the persecution and ostracism of many talented individuals.

Censorship was also a significant issue during the McCarthy era. The government censored books, films, and other media that were deemed too sympathetic to communism or too critical of the government. This censorship was carried out by government agencies such as the House Un-American Activities Committee and the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

Overall, the loyalty oaths, blacklisting, and censorship of the McCarthy era had a chilling effect on free speech and civil liberties in the United States. The legacy of this period serves as a reminder of the importance of protecting individual rights and freedoms, even in times of perceived national security threats.

Grouping #22

Relief during the New Deal
Recovery during the New Deal
Reform during the New Deal

The New Deal was a series of programs and policies implemented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to address the economic crisis and social issues during the Great Depression. The New Deal consisted of three main goals: relief, recovery, and reform.

Relief programs were designed to provide immediate assistance to people who were suffering from the effects of the Great Depression. These programs included the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which employed young men to work on conservation projects; the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), which provided direct relief to the unemployed; and the Works Progress Administration (WPA), which created jobs through public works projects.
Recovery programs were designed to help stimulate economic growth and improve conditions for workers and businesses. These programs included the National Recovery Administration (NRA), which established codes of fair competition for businesses; the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), which sought to raise farm prices by reducing agricultural surpluses; and the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), which provided electricity and economic development to the impoverished rural South.
Reform programs were designed to address the underlying causes of the Great Depression and prevent future economic crises. These programs included the Social Security Act, which provided a safety net for the elderly and disabled; the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA), which protected workers’ right to form unions and engage in collective bargaining; and the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), which established a minimum wage and maximum workweek.

In terms of differences and similarities, the relief programs focused on immediate assistance to those in need, while recovery programs aimed to improve the overall economic situation. Reform programs sought to address the root causes of the economic crisis and prevent future ones.

The New Deal programs also differed in terms of their long-term effects. Relief programs were largely temporary, aimed at providing immediate assistance during the crisis. Recovery programs had a more lasting impact on the economy, with the TVA, in particular, transforming the South and providing a model for government-led economic development.

Reform programs had the most significant impact on American society, with the Social Security Act providing a safety net for millions of Americans, the NLRA empowering workers to organize and collectively bargain for better wages and working conditions, and the FLSA establishing basic labor standards that still exist today.

Overall, the New Deal was a bold and ambitious set of programs that sought to address the economic and social challenges of the Great Depression. While some programs were more successful than others, the New Deal left a lasting legacy on American society and the role of government in the economy.

Grouping #23

The Lowell Mills Girls
The Seneca Falls convention
The Invention of the Typewritter
Triangle Shirt Waste Fire
The Nineteenth Amendment
World War I and World War II
The introduction of the birth control pill
Roe v. Wade

All of these events relate to the fight for women’s rights and the evolution of women’s roles and opportunities in society. However, they differ in their specific focus and the ways in which they brought about change.

The Lowell Mills Girls were young women who worked in textile mills in Lowell, Massachusetts in the early 19th century. They were among the first women employed in large numbers in the industrial workforce, and played an important role in the early labor movement by organizing strikes and demanding better working conditions. Their efforts challenged traditional gender roles and helped pave the way for future generations of women to enter the workforce and fight for their rights.
The Seneca Falls convention was the first women’s rights convention. It was held in Seneca Falls, New York in 1848 and was organized by women’s rights activists including Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. The convention produced the Declaration of Sentiments, which called for equal rights for women including the right to vote. The Seneca Falls convention marked the beginning of a more organized and focused women’s rights movement that would continue to grow in the following decades. It challenged traditional gender roles and paved the way for future generations of women to fight for their rights.
The invention of the typewriter was a technological innovation that had a profound impact on women’s opportunities in the workforce. The typewriter created new job opportunities for women and allowed them to work as clerks and secretaries. It also played a role in the women’s suffrage movement by allowing women to produce and distribute their own materials more easily.
he Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, which occurred on March 25, 1911, was a tragic event that led to a major turning point in the fight for women’s rights and the evolution of women’s roles and opportunities in society. The fire took place in a garment factory in New York City and resulted in the deaths of 146 garment workers, mostly young immigrant women.
The working conditions in the factory were deplorable. The workers, who were mostly women and girls, were paid low wages and worked long hours in cramped and unsafe conditions. They were not allowed to take breaks or even leave the factory during their shifts. In addition, the factory owners had locked the doors to prevent theft, which made it difficult for workers to escape when the fire broke out.
The tragedy of the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire drew attention to the poor working conditions that many women faced in the early 20th century. The victims were mainly young immigrant women, who had limited opportunities for education and were forced to work in dangerous and exploitative conditions to support themselves and their families. In the aftermath of the fire, women’s rights activists, including labor leaders and suffragettes, used the tragedy to advocate for better working conditions, improved workplace safety, and stronger labor laws. They also called attention to the need for women to have more opportunities for education and job training, and to be able to participate fully in the workforce. The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire thus became a catalyst for the movement for women’s rights and the evolution of women’s roles and opportunities in society. It highlighted the need for better working conditions and legal protections for workers, and it helped to advance the cause of women’s rights and workplace equality. As a result of the fire and the subsequent activism of women’s rights advocates, important labor and workplace reforms were enacted, paving the way for greater opportunities and equality for women in the decades to come.
World War I created new opportunities for women as men went off to fight, leading to an increased demand for female workers in various industries. Women entered the workforce in larger numbers, taking on jobs previously reserved for men. Their contributions to the war effort challenged traditional gender roles and demonstrated that women were capable of more than just domestic duties. After the war, many women continued to work outside the home, and their experiences during the war helped to pave the way for future generations of women to fight for their rights and equal opportunities in society.
The Nineteenth Amendment granted women the right to vote and was a major milestone in the fight for women’s rights. It was the culmination of decades of activism by suffragists and reflected a growing recognition of women’s contributions to society and the need for their voices to be heard.
During World War II, women took on various roles in the workforce that were previously reserved for men, including factory and shipyard work, as well as military support roles. The iconic image of “Rosie the Riveter” symbolized the contributions and sacrifices made by women during the war. During World War II, women also served in various roles in the military, including the Women’s Army Corps (WAC), Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES), and Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP). The WACs served in clerical and administrative positions, while the WAVES served as nurses and in other support roles for the Navy. The WASPs were civilian pilots who flew military aircrafts in non-combat roles. These women faced discrimination and gender bias, but their service paved the way for future generations of women to serve in the military and challenged traditional gender roles in society. After the war, many women continued to work outside the home, and their experiences during the war helped to shift societal attitudes towards women in the workforce, although progress towards gender equality was still slow.
The introduction of the birth control pill in 1960 was a significant development in the fight for women’s rights and the evolution of women’s roles and opportunities in society. It gave women greater control over their own bodies and reproductive choices, allowing them to delay or space out pregnancies. This led to increased educational and career opportunities for women, as well as greater economic independence. The pill also played a role in the sexual revolution and challenged traditional gender roles and expectations. However, it also sparked controversy and debate around issues such as reproductive rights, family values, and moral standards. Overall, the introduction of the birth control pill had a profound impact on women’s lives and paved the way for further progress in the fight for gender equality
The case of Roe v. Wade was a landmark moment in the fight for women’s rights and the evolution of women’s roles and opportunities in society. The Supreme Court’s decision in 1973 established a woman’s legal right to have an abortion, based on the principle of privacy. This decision gave women greater control over their own bodies and reproductive choices, and it helped to pave the way for other reproductive rights, such as access to birth control and family planning services. The Roe v. Wade decision was also a major victory for the feminist movement, which had long fought for reproductive rights and gender equality. However, the case remains controversial and has been the subject of ongoing political and social debate, highlighting the complex and ongoing nature of the fight for women’s rights. Recently, Roe v. Wade was OVERTURNED.

Grouping #24

TVA
WPA
CCC

The TVA, WPA, and CCC were all programs implemented as part of the New Deal under President Franklin D. Roosevelt to address the economic crisis and social issues during the Great Depression.

The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was a recovery program that aimed to stimulate economic growth in the Tennessee Valley region, which included parts of Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Kentucky, Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia. The TVA built dams along the Tennessee River to generate electricity, control flooding, and improve navigation. It also provided technical assistance to farmers and small businesses and promoted industrial development.
The Works Progress Administration (WPA) was a relief program that provided employment to millions of Americans through public works projects such as the construction of roads, bridges, schools, and parks. The WPA aimed to provide immediate assistance to those in need and stimulate economic growth by creating jobs.
The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) was also a relief program that employed young men to work on conservation projects such as planting trees, building trails, and improving parks. The CCC aimed to provide employment and training to young men while also improving the environment and promoting conservation.

Overall, the TVA, WPA, and CCC were all important programs that helped alleviate the effects of the Great Depression and promote economic growth and development in different ways.

Grouping #25

Brown v. Board
Plessy v. Ferguson

Brown v. Board of Education and Plessy v. Ferguson were landmark U.S. Supreme Court cases that dealt with issues of race and segregation in America.

Plessy v. Ferguson, decided in 1896, upheld the constitutionality of “separate but equal” facilities for African Americans and whites, thus legalizing segregation in public spaces (trains, busses, water fountains, restaurants, hotels, etc.)
In contrast, Brown v. Board of Education, decided in 1954, declared that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional because separate facilities could never be truly equal, and that segregation had a detrimental effect on the education and mental health of African American children.

While Plessy v. Ferguson upheld segregation, Brown v. Board of Education struck down the legal basis for segregation in public schools and marked the beginning of the Civil Rights Movement. Plessy v. Ferguson perpetuated the notion of racial inferiority, while Brown v. Board of Education rejected it and paved the way for desegregation and integration in schools and other public spaces.

Grouping #26

The release of the Pentagon Papers
The Investigation into the assassination of John Kennedy
The Watergate Scandal
The Tet Offensive

Each of these caused a significant loss of trust in the government,

The release of the Pentagon Papers, which revealed the extent of the US government’s deception and manipulation of public opinion regarding the Vietnam War, caused a significant loss of trust in the government, as many Americans felt that they had been misled about the nature and purpose of the war.
The investigation into the assassination of John F. Kennedy, which failed to provide a clear and satisfactory explanation for the president’s death and was criticized for a lack of transparency, also contributed to a loss of trust in the government, as many Americans felt that the government was not being forthcoming about what had happened.
The Watergate Scandal, which involved a series of illegal activities by the Nixon administration, including wiretapping, break-ins, and the use of government agencies to spy on political opponents, caused a major loss of trust in the government, as many Americans felt that their elected officials had abused their power and were not acting in the best interests of the people.
The Tet Offensive, which challenged the US government’s claims of progress in the Vietnam War and demonstrated the resilience and determination of the enemy, also contributed to a loss of trust in the government, as many Americans began to question the government’s justification for the war and its ability to manage the conflict effectively.

Overall, these events eroded public confidence in the government’s ability to act honestly and effectively, and contributed to a growing sense of disillusionment with the political system and those in power.

Grouping #27

Challenges to conformity by artists in the post World War II years
Challenges to conformity by intellectual s in the post World War II years
Challenges to conformity by rebellious youth in post World War II years

In the post World War II years, challenges to conformity emerged from different groups, including artists, intellectuals, and rebellious youth. These challenges were rooted in a rejection of traditional social norms and values and a desire to explore new forms of expression and individuality.

Challenges to conformity by artists in the post World War II years often took the form of rejecting traditional artistic styles and techniques. Instead, many artists began to experiment with abstract and expressionist forms, challenging the conventional ideas of what art should look like. They also began to explore new themes and subject matter, including the realities of war and the effects of industrialization on society. This rejection of traditional artistic norms led to the emergence of new artistic movements such as Abstract Expressionism and Pop Art.
Challenges to conformity by intellectuals in the post World War II years often took the form of a rejection of traditional political and social ideologies. Many intellectuals became disillusioned with the political and economic systems that had led to World War II and the Holocaust, and began to explore alternative forms of thought, such as existentialism and Marxism. They also began to question traditional gender roles and sexual norms, advocating for greater equality and freedom for marginalized groups.
Challenges to conformity by rebellious youth in the post World War II years were often characterized by a rejection of traditional authority and social norms. Many young people began to question the values and expectations of their parents’ generation, rejecting traditional gender roles, and experimenting with new forms of self-expression, such as rock and roll music and avant-garde fashion. This rejection of traditional values and norms led to the emergence of youth subcultures such as the Beatniks, the Hippies, and the Punk movement.

In summary, challenges to conformity in the post World War II years were driven by a rejection of traditional values and a desire to explore new forms of expression and individuality. These challenges emerged from different groups, including artists, intellectuals, and rebellious youth, and took different forms, including rejection of traditional artistic styles and techniques, rejection of traditional political and social ideologies, and rejection of traditional authority and social norms.

Grouping #28

The immigration laws of the 1920s
The immigration laws 1850–1900
The immigaraton laws priot to World War II
The immigration laws of the Wordl War II years
The immigration laws prior to 1850

The immigration laws prior to 1850 — were largely nonexistent, as the United States did not have a centralized immigration system until the mid-19th century. However, various state and local laws were enacted to regulate immigration, particularly in the Northeastern states. Some laws imposed a tax on incoming immigrants or required them to post a bond as a guarantee of their good behavior. Others restricted the ability of non-citizens to own property or vote in elections. The Naturalization Law of 1790 restricted citizenship to free white persons of good character who had resided in the United States for at least two years. This law effectively excluded non-whites and women from citizenship.

The immigration laws from 1850–1900 — were characterized by various acts and policies aimed at regulating and restricting immigration. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was one of the most significant laws of this period. It prohibited Chinese laborers from immigrating to the United States for a period of 10 years and was later extended several times. Other laws during this period included the Immigration Act of 1882, which imposed a tax on incoming immigrants, and the Alien Contract Labor Law of 1885, which prohibited employers from importing foreign workers to replace American workers.

The immigration laws from 1900–1941 — prior to World War II, the United States had a series of immigration laws and policies that were largely designed to control the composition of the country’s immigrant population. Some of the notable immigration laws and policies from this period include: National Origins Act of 1924: This act established a quota system that limited the number of immigrants who could enter the United States each year from each country, with a preference for immigrants from Western and Northern Europe. The act also established the Border Patrol to enforce immigration laws along the country’s borders. Immigration Act of 1929: This act further restricted the number of immigrants who could enter the United States each year and established the Registry Act, which allowed certain undocumented immigrants who had been living in the country since before 1921 to apply for legal status.The immigration laws of the 1920s — where characterized by the national origins quota system. This system restricted immigration based on a person’s country of origin, with the aim of preserving the United States’ demographic makeup. The laws favored immigrants from Northern and Western Europe, while limiting the number of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa. The laws also imposed a total immigration limit of 150,000 per year.

The immigration laws during World War II: During World War II, the United States implemented a number of immigration policies and laws that were aimed at protecting national security and preventing espionage by foreign agents. Some of the notable immigration laws and policies during this period include: The Alien Registration Act of 1940: This act required all non-citizen adults in the United States to register with the government and carry identification documents. Failure to comply was a federal offense punishable by fines and imprisonment. Executive Order 9066: This order, signed by President Roosevelt in 1942, authorized the forced relocation and internment of Japanese Americans living on the West Coast. Over 100,000 individuals, including U.S. citizens, were sent to internment camps for the duration of the war. Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943: This act repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and allowed Chinese immigrants to become naturalized citizens.

Overall, the immigration laws and policies during World War II were characterized by a heightened focus on national security and the perceived threat of foreign infiltration. While some of these policies have been criticized as discriminatory or unconstitutional, others have been seen as important steps toward promoting greater inclusivity and protection for vulnerable populations.

The immigration law of 1965 — also known as the Hart-Celler Act, was a major overhaul of the United States’ immigration system. It abolished the national origins quota system that had been in place since the 1920s, which restricted immigration based on a person’s country of origin. The 1965 act replaced this system with a preference system based on family reunification, job skills, and refugees. The act also removed racial and ethnic barriers to immigration, allowing for increased immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

The immigration laws since 1965 — since the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, there have been several significant changes and amendments to U.S. immigration law. Some of the notable immigration laws and policies enacted since 1965 include: Refugee Act of 1980: This act established the legal framework for admitting and resettling refugees in the United States; Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986: This act provided a path to legal status for undocumented immigrants who had been living in the United States since before 1982. It also increased penalties for employers who hired undocumented workers and strengthened border enforcement. Immigration Act of 1990: This act increased the overall number of legal immigrants allowed into the country and established new categories for family and employment-based immigration, Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996: This act expanded the grounds for deporting non-citizens who were in the United States unlawfully, increased penalties for immigration-related crimes, and made it more difficult for legal permanent residents to naturalize. Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA): In 2012, the Obama administration established the DACA program, which allowed certain undocumented individuals who arrived in the United States as children to apply for temporary protection from deportation and work authorization, Travel Ban: In 2017, the Trump administration issued a series of executive orders restricting travel from several predominantly Muslim countries. The Supreme Court ultimately upheld a revised version of the ban in 2018.

Period 8 Key Concepts

TOPIC 8.2: The Cold War

United States policymakers engaged in a cold war with the authoritarian Soviet Union, seeking to limit the growth of Communist military power and ideological influence, create a free-market global economy, and build an international security system.
As postwar tensions dissolved the wartime alliance between Western democracies and the Soviet Union, the United States developed a foreign policy based on collective security, international aid, and economic institutions that bolstered non-Communist nations.
Concerned by expansionist Communist ideology and Soviet repression, the United States sought to contain communism through a variety of measures, including major military engagements in Korea.
The Cold War fluctuated between periods of direct and indirect military confrontation and periods of mutual coexistence (or détente).

TOPIC 8.3: The Red Scare

Americans debated policies and methods designed to expose suspected communists (the Second Red Scare) within the United States even as both parties supported the broader strategy of containing communism.

TOPIC 8.4: Economy After 1945

A burgeoning private sector, federal spending, the baby boom, and technological developments helped spur economic growth.
As higher education opportunities and new technologies rapidly expanded, increasing social mobility encouraged the migration of the middle class to the suburbs and of many Americans to the South and West. The Sun Belt (migration) region emerged as a significant political and economic force.

TOPIC 8.5: Culture After 1945

Mass culture became increasingly homogeneous in the postwar years, inspiring challenges to conformity by artists, intellectuals, and rebellious youth.

TOPIC 8.6: Early Steps in the Civil Rights Movement (the 1940s and 1950s)

Seeking to fulfill Reconstruction-era promises, civil rights activists and political leaders achieved some legal and political successes in ending segregation, although progress toward racial equality was slow.
The three branches of the federal government used measures including desegregation of the armed services and Brown v. Board of Education (1954) to promote greater racial equality.

TOPIC 8.7: America as a World Power

Cold War competition extended to Latin America, where the United States supported non-Communist regimes that had varying levels of commitment to democracy.
Americans debated the merits of a large nuclear arsenal and the military–industrial complex.
Postwar decolonization and the emergence of powerful nationalist movements in Africa and the Middle East led both sides in the Cold War to seek allies among new nations, many of which remained nonaligned.

TOPIC 8.8: The Vietnam War

Concerned by expansionist Communist ideology and Soviet repression, the United States sought to contain communism through a variety of measures, including major military engagements in Vietnam.
Postwar decolonization and the emergence of powerful nationalist movements in Asia led both sides in the Cold War to seek allies among new nations, many of which remained nonaligned.
Americans debated the appropriate power of the executive branch in conducting foreign and military policy (the War Powers Act)

TOPIC 8.9: The Great Society

Despite an overall affluence in postwar America, advocates raised concerns about the prevalence and persistence of poverty as a national problem.
Liberalism, based on anti-communism abroad and a firm belief in the efficacy of government power to achieve social goals at home, reached a high point of political influence by the mid-1960s.
Liberal ideas found expression in Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society, which attempted to use federal legislation and programs to end racial discrimination, eliminate poverty, and address other social issues.
Immigrants from around the world sought access to the political, social, and economic opportunities in the United States, especially after the passage of new immigration laws in 1965.

TOPIC 8.10: The African American Civil Rights Movement (1960s)

During and after World War II, civil rights activists and leaders, most notably Martin Luther King Jr., combated racial discrimination utilizing a variety of strategies, including legal challenges, direct action, and nonviolent protest tactics.
Continuing resistance slowed efforts at desegregation, sparking social and political unrest across the nation. Debates among civil rights activists over the efficacy of nonviolence increased after 1965.
The three branches of the federal government used measures including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to promote greater racial equality.
A series of Supreme Court decisions expanded civil rights and individual liberties.

TOPIC 8.11: The Civil Rights Movement Expands

Latino, American Indian, and Asian American movements continued to demand social and economic equality and a redress of past injustices.
Feminist and LGBTQ+ activists mobilized behind claims for legal, economic, and social equality.
Feminists who participated in the counterculture of the 1960s rejected many of the social, economic, and political values of their parents’ generation and advocated changes in sexual norms.

TOPIC 8.12: Youth Culture of the 1960s

Although anti-communist foreign policy faced little domestic opposition in previous years, the Vietnam War inspired sizable and passionate anti-war protests that became more numerous as the war escalated and sometimes led to violence.
Some groups on the left also rejected liberal policies, arguing that political leaders did too little to transform the racial and economic status quo at home and pursued immoral policies abroad.
Young people who participated in the counterculture of the 1960s rejected many of the social, economic, and political values of their parents’ generation, introduced greater informality into U.S. culture, and advocated changes in sexual norms.

TOPIC 8.13: The Environment and Natural Resources from 1968 to 1980

Ideological, military, and economic concerns shaped U.S. involvement in the Middle East, with several oil crises in the region eventually sparking attempts at creating a national energy policy.
Environmental problems and accidents led to a growing environmental movement that aimed to use legislative and public efforts to combat pollution and protect natural resources. The federal government established new environmental programs and regulations.

TOPIC 8.14: Society in Transition

In the 1960s, conservatives challenged liberal laws and court decisions and perceived moral and cultural decline, seeking to limit the role of the federal government and enact more assertive foreign policies.
Public confidence and trust in government’s ability to solve social and economic problems declined in the 1970s in the wake of economic challenges, political scandals (Watergate), and foreign policy crises.
The 1970s saw growing clashes between conservatives and liberals over social and cultural issues, the power of the federal government, race, and movements for greater individual rights.
The rapid and substantial growth of evangelical Christian churches and organizations was accompanied by greater political and social activism on the part of religious conservatives.