An APUSH P4-P6 Review

Produced in collaboration with CHatGPT

This post opens with a brief description of the major themes that characterized American history from 1800 to 1898.

Then the post provides a listing of 100 words, terms, and phrases either expressly mentioned in or that logically flow from the APUSH P4-P6 CED Key Concepts, with each term defined by ChatGPT. This section of the post also includes several short but very good Youtube videos that reinforce some of the more important P4-P6 words, terms, and phrases.

The post then closes out with a listing of the APUSH CED’s P4-P6 Key Concepts (1800–1898.)

I plan to put this work in front of my students when we begin to review for the annual exam. If you notice any glaring errors or omissions (or take issue with anything written) and wish to give me a heads-up, I can be reached at ppaccone@smusd.us.

Major Themes

Here are some of the major themes that characterized American history from 1800 to 1898:

1. Westward Expansion: This period saw significant westward expansion of the United States, as settlers moved westward to areas such as the Louisiana Territory, Oregon Territory, and California. This expansion was driven by economic opportunities, the desire for new land, and manifest destiny ideology.
2. Industrialization: The period from 1800 to 1898 saw the United States transform from an agrarian society to an industrial one. New technologies such as the cotton gin, steam power, and the telegraph revolutionized the way goods were produced and exchanged. This led to significant economic growth and urbanization.
3. Sectionalism: The United States became increasingly divided along regional lines during this period, with the North, South, and West developing distinct economic, social, and political identities. This division was driven by factors such as slavery, economic interests, and cultural differences.
4. Political Reform: This period saw significant political reform, including the expansion of voting rights, the rise of political parties, and the growth of democracy. This was reflected in the election of Andrew Jackson as president in 1828, which marked a shift towards a more populist political system.
5. Expansionism and Imperialism: The United States became increasingly interested in overseas expansion during this period, leading to events such as the Mexican-American War and the acquisition of territories such as Hawaii and Puerto Rico. This expansion was driven by economic and strategic interests, as well as a sense of national pride and a belief in American exceptionalism.

Words, Terms, Phrases

Manifest Destiny (1844+)

Manifest Destiny is a term that was coined in 1844 to describe the belief that the United States was destined to expand its territory and spread its democratic values throughout North America. It was a popular idea during the 19th century and played a significant role in the westward expansion of the United States.

The first major American president to embrace Manifest Destiny was James K. Polk. In 1845, he annexed Texas, which was seen as a major victory for Manifest Destiny supporters. Polk also pursued a policy of territorial expansion, which led to the Mexican-American War and the acquisition of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Colorado, Wyoming, Kansas, and Oklahoma.

Louisiana Purchase (1803):

The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 was a land deal between the United States and France, in which the U.S. acquired approximately 827,000 square miles of land west of the Mississippi River. The purchase had significant effects on Native Americans and slaves:

1. Native Americans: The Louisiana Purchase effectively opened up new lands for American settlement and expansion, which often came at the expense of Native American tribes who had inhabited those areas for centuries. As Americans moved westward, Native Americans were often displaced or forcibly removed from their lands, leading to a series of conflicts and battles over the years.
2. Slaves: The Louisiana Purchase also brought new territories into the United States where slavery was already legal or would become legal. This added to the tensions between free and slave states that eventually led to the Civil War. The expansion of slavery into new territories also led to the creation of new slave markets and a significant increase in the number of enslaved people in the United States.

Overall, the Louisiana Purchase played a major role in the westward expansion of the United States, but it also had a significant impact on the lives and cultures of Native Americans and slaves. The acquisition of this vast territory paved the way for future conflicts and struggles between different groups as they sought to control and exploit the land and its resources.

Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806)

An expedition led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore and map the newly acquired Louisiana Territory and find a route to the Pacific Ocean.

War of 1812

The War of 1812 was a military conflict between the United States and Great Britain that lasted from 1812 to 1815. The war began over maritime issues, including the British practice of impressment, which involved seizing American sailors and forcing them to serve in the British navy.

The war was fought on both land and sea, with major battles taking place in Canada and along the American coast. The war ended in a stalemate, with neither side achieving a clear victory. However, there were several important outcomes of the war:

1. The Treaty of Ghent: The war officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent in 1814. The treaty restored the pre-war borders between the United States and Canada, and it did not address the issue of impressment.
2. Improved relations with Great Britain: Although the war did not resolve the underlying issues between the United States and Great Britain, it did lead to improved diplomatic relations between the two countries. The two nations went on to become close allies in the years that followed.
3. Increased American patriotism: Despite not achieving any clear military victories, the war helped to solidify American national identity and pride.
4. The end of impressment: Although impressment was not specifically addressed in the Treaty of Ghent, it effectively ended as a practice after the war. Britain no longer saw a need to impress American sailors, and the United States had demonstrated its willingness to go to war over the issue.

Overall, the War of 1812 was a significant event in American history that helped to shape the country’s identity and relationships with other nations. While it did not achieve any major territorial or strategic objectives, it did end the practice of impressment and solidify America’s reputation as a major global power.

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

The Monroe Doctrine of 1823 was a foreign policy statement made by President James Monroe that declared that the United States would not tolerate further colonization or intervention by European powers in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. The doctrine became a cornerstone of American foreign policy in the years that followed, and it helped to establish the United States as a dominant power in the region.

The Monroe Doctrine was further expanded upon in 1904 by President Theodore Roosevelt in what came to be known as the Roosevelt Corollary. The corollary asserted that the United States had the right to intervene in the internal affairs of Latin American countries in order to maintain order and stability. This was in response to concerns about growing instability and debt in the region, which could potentially lead to European intervention.

While the Monroe Doctrine and the Roosevelt Corollary were intended to protect American interests in the Western Hemisphere, they also had significant impacts on the region itself. The United States often used its military and economic power to influence and control the affairs of Latin American countries, leading to resentment and anti-American sentiment in many parts of the region.

Overall, the Monroe Doctrine and the Roosevelt Corollary are important examples of American foreign policy in the 19th and early 20th centuries, and they helped to establish the United States as a major global power. However, they also had significant consequences for the countries of Latin America and have been the subject of criticism and controversy over the years.

Missouri Compromise (1820):

The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was a legislative agreement between the Northern and Southern states that sought to regulate the spread of slavery into new territories. The compromise admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, and it established a line (36°30' parallel) beyond which slavery would be prohibited in all new territories acquired by the United States north of the line.

The Missouri Compromise helped to preserve the delicate balance between free and slave states in the United States, but it was eventually overturned by the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. The act created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska and allowed settlers in those territories to decide for themselves whether to allow or prohibit slavery. This effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise and led to significant conflict between pro- and anti-slavery forces in the region.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act was a significant event leading up to the Civil War, as it intensified sectional tensions and contributed to the formation of the Republican Party, which was dedicated to stopping the spread of slavery. The act also helped to popularize the concept of “popular sovereignty,” which held that the people living in a territory should be allowed to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery.

Overall, the Missouri Compromise was an important legislative agreement that sought to regulate the spread of slavery in the United States, but it was eventually overturned by the Kansas-Nebraska Act and contributed to the intensification of sectional tensions leading up to the Civil War.

Jacksonian Democracy

Jacksonian Democracy was a political movement in the United States during the mid-19th century that emphasized greater democracy and egalitarianism. It was named after President Andrew Jackson, who was a key figure in the movement.

Jacksonian Democracy had several key features, including:

1. Greater political participation: The movement sought to expand the right to vote and increase political participation among ordinary citizens.
2. Opposition to the “elitist” establishment: Jacksonian Democrats believed that the existing political and economic elites had too much power and sought to limit their influence.
3. Support for western expansion: Jacksonian Democrats supported the expansion of the United States westward and the acquisition of new territories.
4. Strong executive power: Jacksonian Democrats believed in a strong presidency and supported greater executive power.
5. Populism: The movement appealed to the interests of the common people, and it emphasized the importance of individual liberty and freedom.Overall, Jacksonian Democracy represented a shift towards greater democracy and egalitarianism in American politics. While the movement had many positive aspects, it also had some negative consequences, including the displacement and mistreatment of Native American tribes during westward expansion and the perpetuation of racial inequality and slavery in the South.

Indian Removal Act (1830):

A law that authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River to lands in the West. Trail of Tears (1838–1839): The forced removal and march of thousands of Native Americans from their ancestral lands in the southeastern U.S. to present-day Oklahoma, resulting in the deaths of thousands.

Second Great Awakening: (early 19th century)

The Second Great Awakening was a religious revival movement that took place in the United States during the early to mid-19th century. The movement had a significant impact on American society and culture, and it led to several important social and political changes, including:

1. Abolitionism: The Second Great Awakening played a key role in the rise of the abolitionist movement, which sought to end slavery in the United States. Many Second Great Awakening leaders saw slavery as a sin and a moral evil, and they became involved in the fight to end it.
2. Women’s rights: The Second Great Awakening helped to pave the way for the women’s rights movement by promoting the idea that men and women were equal in the eyes of God. Many women became involved in the movement, and some Second Great Awakening leaders even called for greater equality and opportunities for women.
3. Temperance: The Second Great Awakening was also associated with the temperance movement, which sought to curb the consumption of alcohol in the United States. Many Second Great Awakening leaders saw drunkenness as a moral failing, and they became involved in efforts to promote sobriety and temperance.
4. Social reform: The Second Great Awakening encouraged many Americans to become involved in social reform movements, such as prison reform, education reform, and care for the mentally ill. Many Second Great Awakening leaders saw these issues as moral imperatives and became involved in efforts to address them.

Overall, the Second Great Awakening had a profound impact on American society and culture. It helped to shape the country’s values and beliefs, and it contributed to several important social and political changes that would continue to shape American history for decades to come.

The Second Great Awakening

The Abolitionist Movement

The Senecca Falls Convention

Seneca Falls Convention (1848)

The Seneca Falls Convention was a women’s rights convention that was held in Seneca Falls, New York in 1848. The convention was organized by a group of women’s rights activists, including Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, and it marked the beginning of the First Women’s Rights Movement in the United States.

One of the key outcomes of the Seneca Falls Convention was the drafting of the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments. This document, which was modeled after the Declaration of Independence, outlined the various ways in which women were oppressed and discriminated against in American society. It also called for equal rights for women in areas such as education, employment, and the right to vote.

The Declaration of Rights and Sentiments is significant because it was the first formal document in American history that explicitly called for women’s rights and gender equality. By using the Declaration of Independence as a model, the document also drew attention to the fact that women had been excluded from the promises of liberty and equality that were enshrined in the founding documents of the United States.

The Seneca Falls Convention and the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments marked the beginning of a long struggle for women’s rights in the United States. While progress was slow, the women’s rights movement ultimately succeeded in securing many of the rights that were outlined in the Declaration, including the right to vote with the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920. Overall, the Seneca Falls Convention was a significant moment in American history that helped to advance the cause of gender equality and women’s rights..

Compromise of 1850:

The Compromise of 1850 was a package of legislative measures that sought to resolve a number of disputes between the free and slave states over the issue of slavery. The compromise was proposed by Henry Clay, a senator from Kentucky, and it was passed by Congress in September 1850.

The Compromise of 1850 had several key provisions, including:

1. Admission of California as a free state: California was admitted to the Union as a free state, which upset the balance between free and slave states in Congress.
2. Popular sovereignty in New Mexico and Utah territories: The territories of New Mexico and Utah were created and the issue of slavery was left to be decided by popular sovereignty, which allowed the residents of each territory to vote on whether to allow slavery.
3. Stricter Fugitive Slave Act: The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was strengthened, making it a federal crime to assist in the escape of a slave and requiring citizens to assist in the capture and return of runaway slaves.
4. Abolition of slave trade in Washington, D.C.: The slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia, but slavery itself was still legal.

The Compromise of 1850 helped to delay the onset of the Civil War by temporarily settling some of the most contentious issues between free and slave states. However, it ultimately failed to address the underlying tensions and conflicts over slavery, and it contributed to the intensification of sectional tensions leading up to the Civil War.

Overall, the Compromise of 1850 was a significant legislative agreement that attempted to address the issue of slavery in the United States. While it helped to delay the onset of the Civil War, it ultimately failed to resolve the underlying issues and contributed to the tensions that would ultimately lead to the war.

Fugitive Slave Act (1850)

The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was a federal law that required citizens to assist in the capture and return of runaway slaves. The law was passed as part of the Compromise of 1850, which sought to resolve a number of disputes between free and slave states over the issue of slavery.

The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 had several key provisions, including:

1. Federal enforcement: The law gave federal authorities the power to pursue and capture runaway slaves across state lines.
2. Harsh penalties: Anyone found guilty of aiding a fugitive slave could be fined up to $1,000 and sentenced to six months in jail.
3. No trial by jury: Fugitive slaves were not entitled to a trial by jury, and their fate was decided by a commissioner appointed by the federal government.

The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was deeply unpopular in the North, where many people opposed slavery and believed that the law was a violation of their rights. The law also led to numerous cases of false arrests and kidnappings, as well as violence between pro- and anti-slavery groups.

The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 contributed to the intensification of sectional tensions leading up to the Civil War. It highlighted the deep divide between free and slave states over the issue of slavery, and it demonstrated the willingness of the federal government to use force to support the interests of the South.

Overall, the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was a controversial and divisive law that contributed to the tensions that ultimately led to the Civil War. It remains a significant example of the conflicts and controversies surrounding slavery in the United States during the mid-19th century.

Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)

The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 was a federal law that organized the territories of Kansas and Nebraska and allowed settlers in those territories to decide for themselves whether to allow or prohibit slavery. The act was proposed by Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois, and it was passed by Congress in May 1854.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act had several key provisions, including:

1. Popular sovereignty: The act allowed settlers in the territories of Kansas and Nebraska to decide for themselves whether to allow or prohibit slavery through the process of popular sovereignty.
2. Repeal of the Missouri Compromise: The act repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had prohibited slavery in territories north of the 36°30' parallel.
3. Formation of new territories: The act created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, which had previously been part of the larger Nebraska Territory.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act was deeply controversial and led to significant conflict between pro- and anti-slavery groups. Pro-slavery settlers from Missouri flooded into Kansas to try to sway the vote in favor of slavery, while anti-slavery settlers formed their own government and fought against the pro-slavery forces. This conflict became known as “Bleeding Kansas” and was a significant precursor to the Civil War.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act also contributed to the rise of the Republican Party, which was founded in opposition to the act and was dedicated to stopping the spread of slavery. The act also helped to popularize the concept of popular sovereignty, which held that the people living in a territory should be allowed to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery.

Overall, the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 was a significant legislative agreement that had a profound impact on American history. It helped to intensify sectional tensions over the issue of slavery and contributed to the onset of the Civil War.

Bleeding Kansas (1854–1859)

Bleeding Kansas was a period of violence and political conflict in the Kansas Territory in the years leading up to the Civil War. The violence was sparked by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which allowed settlers in the territory to decide for themselves whether to allow or prohibit slavery.

Pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers flooded into Kansas, each hoping to gain an advantage in the struggle for control of the territory. This led to a series of violent clashes between the two groups, including the infamous “Pottawatomie massacre” in May 1856, in which anti-slavery activist John Brown and his followers killed five pro-slavery settlers in Kansas.

The violence in Kansas helped to further polarize the nation over the issue of slavery and contributed to the onset of the Civil War. It also helped to solidify the position of the Republican Party, which was founded in opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska Act and was dedicated to stopping the spread of slavery.

The conflict in Kansas ultimately subsided after the territory was admitted to the Union as a free state in 1861. However, the legacy of Bleeding Kansas continued to shape American politics and culture in the years that followed. It remains a significant moment in American history and a reminder of the deeply divisive and contentious nature of the issue of slavery in the United States.

Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)

Dred Scott v. Sandford was a landmark Supreme Court case that was decided in 1857. The case centered on the question of whether or not a slave, who had been taken by his owner into free territory, could be considered free.

Dred Scott was a slave who had been taken by his owner, an army surgeon, to live in free territories in Illinois and Wisconsin. After his owner died, Scott sued for his freedom on the grounds that he had lived in free territory for an extended period of time. The case eventually made its way to the Supreme Court.

In a 7–2 decision, the Supreme Court ruled against Scott, stating that he was not entitled to his freedom. The Court held that Scott was not a citizen and therefore had no right to sue in federal court. The Court also declared the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had prohibited slavery in territories north of the 36°30' parallel, to be unconstitutional.

The Dred Scott decision was highly controversial and was widely criticized in both the North and the South. It further intensified the tensions between free and slave states and helped to bring the country closer to civil war.

The Dred Scott decision also had significant legal and political consequences. It helped to solidify the position of slavery supporters in the South and contributed to the rise of the Republican Party in the North. The decision also highlighted the need for a constitutional amendment to clarify the status of slaves and the issue of slavery in the United States.

Overall, the Dred Scott v. Sandford case was a significant moment in American history and helped to shape the country’s views on slavery and citizenship in the years leading up to the Civil War.

Birth of the Republican Party

The Republican Party was founded in 1854 in response to the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the growing tensions over the issue of slavery. The party was formed by a group of anti-slavery activists, including former members of the Whig Party, the Free Soil Party, and the Democratic Party.

The Free Soil Party was a political party that was active from 1848 to 1854. The party was formed in opposition to the expansion of slavery into new territories, and it drew support from a wide range of voters, including northern abolitionists, western farmers, and working-class Americans. The Free Soil Party also emphasized the importance of economic development and modernization, calling for policies that would promote industrialization and infrastructure improvements.

The Republican Party shared many of the Free Soil Party’s goals and principles, including opposition to slavery and support for economic development and modernization. The two parties also drew support from many of the same groups of voters, including northern business interests, western farmers, and anti-slavery activists. The Republican Party ultimately absorbed much of the support that had previously gone to the Free Soil Party, helping to solidify its position as a major political force in the United States.

Overall, the birth of the Republican Party and the Free Soil Party were significant moments in American history that helped to shape the country’s views on slavery, economic development, and individual liberty. These parties played a key role in the events leading up to the Civil War and in shaping the country’s political and economic development in the decades that followed.

Popular Sovereignty

Popular sovereignty is the principle that the people living in a territory should be allowed to decide for themselves whether to allow or prohibit slavery. This concept was first popularized during the debate over the status of slavery in the territories acquired during the Mexican-American War in the mid-19th century.

The idea of popular sovereignty was seen as a compromise between free and slave states, allowing the residents of each territory to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery. Proponents of popular sovereignty believed that this would help to ease tensions between free and slave states and avoid further conflict over the issue of slavery.

However, the use of popular sovereignty as a means of settling the dispute over slavery ultimately failed to resolve the underlying tensions and conflicts between free and slave states. Instead, it helped to intensify the conflict, particularly in the Kansas Territory, where violence erupted between pro- and anti-slavery settlers.

The concept of popular sovereignty played a significant role in the events leading up to the Civil War, highlighting the deep divisions between free and slave states over the issue of slavery. It also helped to popularize the idea that the people living in a territory should have a say in the laws that govern them, a principle that would continue to shape American politics and culture in the decades that followed.

Underground Railroad

A secret network of safe houses and individuals who helped enslaved African Americans escape to freedom in the North and Canada.

John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry (1859):

An unsuccessful attempt by abolitionist John Brown and his followers to seize the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia) and incite a slave rebellion.

Free-Soil Party:

The Free Soil Party was a political party that was active from 1848 to 1854. The party was formed in response to the controversy over the expansion of slavery into new territories and drew support from a wide range of voters, including northern abolitionists, western farmers, and working-class Americans.

While the Free Soil Party shared many goals and principles with abolitionists, there were some key differences between the two groups. Abolitionists sought to immediately end slavery and believed that it was a moral evil that must be eradicated from the United States. The Free Soil Party, on the other hand, did not necessarily seek to end slavery but instead aimed to prevent its expansion into new territories.

The Free Soil Party believed that the expansion of slavery would threaten the economic interests of white workers and farmers, particularly in the western United States. The party also emphasized the importance of economic development and modernization, calling for policies that would promote industrialization and infrastructure improvements.

In contrast to the more radical abolitionist movement, the Free Soil Party took a more pragmatic approach to the issue of slavery, seeking to prevent its expansion rather than immediately ending it. This approach helped to attract a wider range of supporters, including moderate Democrats and Whigs who were opposed to the expansion of slavery but were not necessarily committed to its immediate abolition.

Overall, while the Free Soil Party shared many goals and principles with abolitionists, it differed in its approach to the issue of slavery and its emphasis on economic development and modernization. The party’s pragmatism and broad appeal helped to make it a significant political force in the years leading up to the Civil War.

Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852):

An influential anti-slavery novel written by Harriet Beecher Stowe, which galvanized anti-slavery sentiment in the North and provoked outrage in the South.

Mexican-American War (1846–1848):

The Mexican-American War was a conflict between the United States and Mexico that lasted from 1846 to 1848. The war was sparked by a dispute over the border between Texas and Mexico, which had recently been annexed by the United States.

During the war, the United States achieved a decisive victory over Mexico, acquiring a significant amount of new territory in the process, including California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Colorado, Wyoming, Kansas, and Oklahoma.

In the years leading up to the Spanish-American War of 1898, the sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor in 1898 was blamed on Spain by yellow journalists, which helped to intensify anti-Spanish sentiment in the United States and contributed to the decision to go to war.

Yellow journalism, a type of sensationalized and often exaggerated reporting, played a significant role in shaping public opinion during the Spanish-American War. Publishers such as William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer used their newspapers to fan the flames of war fever, often publishing sensational stories that were not always based in fact.

Overall, the Mexican-American War was a significant event in American history that helped to shape the country’s territorial expansion and its relations with Mexico. The legacy of yellow journalism during the Spanish-American War also highlights the power of the media to influence public opinion and shape national policy.

California Gold Rush (1848–1855)

A massive influx of settlers and prospectors to California following the discovery of gold at Sutter’s Mill. The Gold Rush contributed to the rapid expansion of the U.S. economy and fueled westward expansion.

Know-Nothing Party

A nativist political party in the 1850s that opposed the influence of immigrants and Catholics in American society, reflecting the rise in anti-immigrant sentiment during this period.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848):

The treaty that ended the Mexican-American War, in which Mexico ceded over half its territory to the United States, including present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Colorado, Utah, and Nevada.

Forty-Niners:

Prospectors who flocked to California during the Gold Rush of 1849, hoping to strike it rich. Their arrival dramatically increased California’s population and hastened its admission to the Union.

Nat Turner’s Rebellion (1831):

A violent slave uprising led by enslaved preacher Nat Turner in Virginia, which resulted in the deaths of approximately 60 white people. The rebellion heightened Southern fears about slave insurrections and led to harsher slave codes.

Erie Canal (1825):

The Erie Canal was a major transportation project that connected the Great Lakes region to the Hudson River and ultimately to the port of New York City. The canal was completed in 1825 and was a major engineering feat for its time.

The Erie Canal had a significant impact on the development of New York City, which became a major commercial center and port of entry for goods from the Great Lakes region and beyond. The canal helped to reduce transportation costs and improve access to new markets, which led to a significant expansion of trade and commerce in the city.

The canal also played a key role in the development of the American West, providing a reliable transportation link for settlers and goods heading westward. The canal helped to open up new areas for settlement and encouraged the growth of agriculture and industry in the region.

Overall, the Erie Canal was a significant engineering and transportation project that had a profound impact on American history. The canal helped to connect the eastern and western regions of the country, fueling economic growth and expansion in both areas. Its impact on the development of New York City, in particular, helped to establish the city as a major commercial and financial center and contributed to its rise as one of the most influential cities in the world.

A major transportation project that connected the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean via the Hudson River, facilitating trade and westward expansion. Its completion spurred economic growth in the Northeast and Midwest.

Spoils System:

A political practice associated with Andrew Jackson and his supporters, in which government jobs and favors were awarded to loyal party members as a reward for their support. This system led to widespread patronage and corruption.

Lincoln-Douglas Debates (1858):

A series of debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas during their race for the Illinois Senate seat, focusing on the issue of slavery in the territories.

Election of 1860:

A pivotal presidential election in which Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln was elected, leading to the secession of several Southern states and the eventual outbreak of the Civil War.

Secession:

The act of Southern states withdrawing from the United States to form the Confederate States of America, in response to the perceived threat posed by the election of Lincoln and the Republican Party.

Confederate States of America:

A confederation of seceded Southern states formed in 1861, with its own constitution, government, and president (Jefferson Davis).

Emancipation Proclamation (1863):

The Emancipation Proclamation was a presidential proclamation issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the Civil War. The proclamation declared that all slaves in Confederate-held territory were “henceforth and forever free.”

While the Emancipation Proclamation did not immediately free all slaves in the United States, as it did not apply to slaves in Union-held territory or in states that remained loyal to the Union, it was a significant step towards ending slavery in America. The proclamation helped to shift the focus of the Civil War from a struggle to preserve the Union to a broader fight for freedom and equality for all Americans.

The Emancipation Proclamation also had significant effects on the course of the war. It helped to weaken the Confederate economy, as slaves were often used as laborers on plantations and in other industries. The proclamation also encouraged African Americans to enlist in the Union army, and more than 180,000 African American soldiers served in the Union army and navy by the end of the war.

While the Emancipation Proclamation did not immediately end slavery in the United States, it was a crucial step towards the eventual abolition of slavery and the broader fight for civil rights and social justice in America. The proclamation remains an important symbol of the struggle for freedom and equality in American history, and its legacy can still be felt today.

Gettysburg Address (1863):

The Gettysburg Address is one of the most famous speeches in American history. It was delivered by President Abraham Lincoln on November 19, 1863, at the dedication of the Soldiers’ National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, just a few months after the pivotal battle of Gettysburg during the Civil War.

In the speech, Lincoln emphasized the importance of the Union cause and the sacrifices made by those who fought in the Civil War. He also spoke about the broader principles of freedom and equality, declaring that the war was a test of whether a government “of the people, by the people, and for the people” could survive.

The Gettysburg Address is famous for its eloquent language and its powerful expression of the ideals of democracy and equality. In just a few short sentences, Lincoln articulated the principles that would guide the country through the rest of the Civil War and beyond, and helped to cement his place as one of the greatest American presidents.

Today, the Gettysburg Address is widely regarded as one of the most important speeches in American history, and is studied by students of all ages as a testament to the enduring values of democracy, freedom, and equality.

Sherman’s March to the Sea (1864):

A devastating military campaign led by Union General William Tecumseh Sherman, which aimed to weaken the Confederacy’s economy and morale by destroying infrastructure and resources in Georgia and the Carolinas.

Reconstruction (1865–1877):

Reconstruction was a period of American history that lasted from 1865 to 1877, following the end of the Civil War. Reconstruction was marked by significant political and social changes, as well as a contentious debate over the best way to rebuild and reunite the country after years of conflict.

During Reconstruction, there were several different visions and plans for how to rebuild the country and address the challenges facing the South. Some of the key plans and visions of Reconstruction included:

1. Presidential Reconstruction: This plan, initially put forth by President Abraham Lincoln, called for a relatively lenient approach to Reconstruction, with a focus on rebuilding and healing the country. Under this plan, Southern states would be readmitted to the Union once they had adopted new constitutions and abolished slavery.
2. Radical Reconstruction: As the conflict over Reconstruction grew more heated, a group of Radical Republicans in Congress pushed for a more aggressive approach to rebuilding the South. This plan included the passage of the 14th and 15th Amendments to the Constitution, which guaranteed citizenship and voting rights to African Americans.
3. Johnson’s Plan: After Lincoln’s assassination, President Andrew Johnson took a more lenient approach to Reconstruction, similar to the earlier Presidential Reconstruction plan. However, his plan was criticized for being too lenient on former Confederate leaders and for failing to address the ongoing discrimination and violence facing African Americans in the South.
4. Military Reconstruction: In 1867, Congress passed the Military Reconstruction Act, which placed the South under military control and required Southern states to hold new elections and adopt new constitutions. This plan was designed to protect the rights of African Americans and prevent discrimination in the South.

Overall, Reconstruction was a complex and contentious period in American history, marked by significant political and social changes, as well as ongoing debates over the best way to rebuild and reunite the country. While many of the plans and visions of Reconstruction ultimately fell short of their goals, the period helped to lay the groundwork for the ongoing struggle for civil rights and social justice in the United States.

Freedmen’s Bureau:

A federal agency established in 1865 to assist formerly enslaved people and impoverished white Southerners in the aftermath of the Civil War, providing food, housing, education, and legal assistance.

Black Codes:

he Black Codes were a series of laws passed by Southern states in the aftermath of the Civil War that aimed to restrict the rights and freedoms of African Americans. These laws were designed to maintain white supremacy and limit the ability of African Americans to exercise their rights as free citizens.

Some examples of Black Codes included:

1. Vagrancy laws: These laws allowed police to arrest African Americans who were unable to prove that they had a job or a means of support. This effectively criminalized poverty and homelessness, and gave authorities broad powers to harass and intimidate African Americans.
2. Labor contracts: Some Southern states required African Americans to sign labor contracts that bound them to work for white landowners for a specified period of time. These contracts were often one-sided and unfair, and gave landowners significant power over the lives and livelihoods of African American workers.
3. Restrictions on gun ownership: Some Southern states passed laws that prohibited African Americans from owning firearms, which made it difficult for them to protect themselves against violence and intimidation from white supremacists.
4. Curfews and other restrictions on movement: Some Southern states imposed curfews and other restrictions on the movements of African Americans, which limited their ability to travel freely and restricted their access to public spaces.

Overall, the Black Codes were a significant part of American history and represented a concerted effort by Southern states to limit the rights and freedoms of African Americans in the aftermath of the Civil War. While many of these laws were eventually overturned or repealed, their legacy can still be felt today, and serves as a reminder of the ongoing struggle for civil rights and social justice in the United States.Radical Republicans:

A faction of the Republican Party during the Civil War and Reconstruction that advocated for the abolition of slavery, equal rights for African Americans, and harsh policies towards the defeated Confederacy.

Ten Percent Plan:

A Reconstruction plan proposed by President Lincoln that allowed for a Southern state to be readmitted to the Union once 10% of its voters swore an oath of allegiance to the United States and accepted the emancipation of enslaved people.

Sharecropping:

A system of agriculture in the post-Civil War South in which formerly enslaved people and poor white farmers worked plots of land owned by others in exchange for a share of the crop produced, often leading to a cycle of debt and poverty.

Carpetbaggers:

Northern businessmen and politicians who moved to the South during Reconstruction to take advantage of economic opportunities, often viewed negatively by Southerners as opportunistic profiteers.

Scalawags:

Southern white Republicans who supported Reconstruction and the rights of African Americans, often viewed by fellow Southerners as traitors to their region.

Ku Klux Klan:

A white supremacist organization founded during Reconstruction that used violence and intimidation to suppress the political and civil rights of African Americans and their allies.

Homestead Act (1862):

The Homestead Act of 1862 was a federal law that granted land to settlers in the western United States. The law provided 160 acres of public land to anyone who agreed to live on and improve the land for at least five years.

The Homestead Act had significant effects on American history and on the settlement of the western United States. Some of the key effects of the Homestead Act include:

1. Increased settlement of the western United States: The Homestead Act led to a significant increase in settlement of the western United States, with thousands of people moving west to claim land and start new lives. This migration helped to fuel the growth of new towns and communities in the West, and played a key role in the expansion of American territory.
2. Encouraged farming and agriculture: The Homestead Act was designed to encourage farming and agriculture in the West, and many settlers used their land to grow crops, raise livestock, and build homes and other structures. This helped to establish agriculture as a key industry in the region and helped to support the growing American economy.
3. Displacement of Native American communities: The settlement of the West through the Homestead Act had a significant impact on Native American communities, many of whom were displaced from their traditional lands and forced to relocate to reservations. This displacement had a lasting impact on Native American communities and is a key part of the history of the American West.
4. Encouraged westward expansion: The Homestead Act helped to encourage westward expansion and the settlement of new territories, which played a key role in the growth and development of the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Overall, the Homestead Act had significant effects on American history and on the settlement of the western United States. While the law helped to encourage settlement and economic growth, it also had negative effects on Native American communities and is a complex and controversial part of American history.

Compromise of 1877:

An informal agreement that resolved the disputed 1876 presidential election between Rutherford B. Hayes and Samuel J. Tilden. Hayes became president in exchange for the withdrawal of federal troops from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction and ushering in the era of Jim Crow.

The Pacific Railway Act of 1862:

A significant piece of legislation passed by the United States Congress during the Civil War. It aimed to facilitate the construction of a transcontinental railroad connecting the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States. The act provided federal support for the construction of the railroad by granting land and financial assistance to the Central Pacific Railroad and the Union Pacific Railroad, two companies charged with building the railway.

Jim Crow Laws:

Racial segregation laws enacted in the Southern states after the end of Reconstruction, which systematically discriminated against African Americans and enforced racial segregation in public spaces, transportation, and education.

Gilded Age (1870s-1900):

The Gilded Age was a period in American history that spanned from the 1870s to the turn of the 20th century. The term “gilded” refers to the appearance of prosperity and progress that characterized the era, while also suggesting that these superficial qualities masked deeper social and economic problems.

During the Gilded Age, the United States experienced significant economic growth and industrialization, with new technologies and innovations driving rapid change and development. However, this growth was often accompanied by significant social and economic inequality, as well as political corruption and other forms of misconduct.

The Gilded Age was marked by the rise of powerful industrialists and monopolies, such as Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller, who amassed great wealth and power through the exploitation of natural resources, labor, and financial systems. This concentration of wealth and power created significant social and economic disparities, with many Americans struggling to make ends meet while a few individuals enjoyed immense prosperity and privilege.

The Gilded Age was also marked by significant political corruption, with many politicians and government officials engaging in bribery, patronage, and other forms of misconduct. This corruption was often linked to the power of monopolies and other corporate interests, who sought to influence government policies and decision-making to their advantage.

Despite these challenges, the Gilded Age also saw significant social and cultural developments, including the growth of new forms of media and entertainment, as well as the emergence of new social movements, such as the labor movement and the women’s suffrage movement.

Overall, the Gilded Age was a complex and contradictory era in American history, marked by significant growth and development, but also by significant social, economic, and political challenges that would shape the country for years to come.

Labor Unions:

Organizations formed by workers to advocate for better working conditions, fair wages, and other benefits. Major labor unions during this period included the Knights of Labor, the American Federation of Labor, and the Industrial Workers of the World.

Populist Party:

The Populist Party, also known as the People’s Party, was a political party in the United States that emerged in the late 19th century. The party was formed in response to the growing social and economic inequality of the time, particularly in rural areas, and was focused on advocating for the interests of farmers and workers.

The Populist Party called for a wide range of political and economic reforms, including the direct election of senators, the use of referendums and initiatives to allow citizens to directly participate in the political process, the regulation of railroads and other industries, and the establishment of a graduated income tax.

The Populist Party was also strongly opposed to the gold standard and called for the use of silver as a currency, a position that became known as “free silver”. The party believed that the use of silver would help to stimulate economic growth and reduce the power of banks and other financial institutions.

The Populist Party was influential in American politics for a time, and in 1892, the party’s presidential candidate, James B. Weaver, won over a million votes. However, the party’s popularity declined in the years that followed, and it was ultimately absorbed into the Democratic Party in the early 20th century.

Despite its relatively short lifespan, the Populist Party was an important political movement that helped to raise awareness about the social and economic issues of the time and paved the way for future reform movements in the United States.

Spanish-American War (1898):

The Spanish-American War was a brief conflict between the United States and Spain that lasted from April to August of 1898. The war was sparked by a number of factors, including American support for Cuban independence from Spain, as well as the explosion of the USS Maine, an American battleship, in Havana harbor in February of 1898.

The sinking of the USS Maine was a significant event in the lead-up to the Spanish-American War and played a key role in shaping public opinion in the United States. While the exact cause of the explosion is still debated, many Americans at the time believed that it was the result of Spanish sabotage, and yellow journalism in the American press helped to inflame anti-Spanish sentiment and build support for the war effort.

Yellow journalism, a type of sensationalized and often exaggerated reporting, played a significant role in shaping public opinion during the Spanish-American War. Publishers such as William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer used their newspapers to fan the flames of war fever, often publishing sensational stories that were not always based in fact.

Despite the controversy surrounding the war, the United States achieved a decisive victory over Spain, gaining control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, as well as establishing itself as a major world power. The Spanish-American War had a profound impact on American history and helped to shape the country’s foreign policy and global role in the years that followed.

Yellow Journalism:

A sensationalist style of reporting used by newspapers during the late 19th century to attract readers, often exaggerating or fabricating news stories. This style of journalism played a role in inflaming public opinion during the lead-up to the Spanish-American War.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896):

Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1896 that established the legal doctrine of “separate but equal” in American law. The case arose from a challenge to a Louisiana law that required separate railroad cars for black and white passengers.

Homer Plessy, a black man, was arrested for refusing to move to a segregated railroad car and challenged the law on the basis that it violated the Fourteenth Amendment’s guarantee of equal protection under the law. However, the Supreme Court ruled that the Louisiana law was constitutional, as long as the separate facilities provided for different races were “equal” in quality.

The decision in Plessy v. Ferguson had significant implications for civil rights in the United States, as it effectively upheld the system of racial segregation that existed in many parts of the country at the time. The “separate but equal” doctrine was used to justify a wide range of discriminatory practices, from segregated schools and public facilities to discriminatory housing and employment practices.

Plessy v. Ferguson was eventually overturned by the Supreme Court in the landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, which declared that separate educational facilities for black and white students were inherently unequal and violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

Overall, Plessy v. Ferguson was a significant case in American history that had a profound impact on civil rights and social justice in the United States. While the decision in the case was ultimately overturned, it helped to perpetuate and legitimize racial discrimination and segregation in American society for many years.

Dawes Act (1887):

The Dawes Act, also known as the General Allotment Act, was a federal law passed in 1887 that sought to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream American society by breaking up tribal lands into individual plots of land.

Under the Dawes Act, tribal lands were divided into allotments that were given to individual Native Americans, with the goal of encouraging them to adopt American farming practices and other customs. The law was also designed to free up land for non-Native American settlement and development.

The Dawes Act had a significant impact on Native American communities, many of whom lost their traditional lands and were forced to assimilate into American society. The law disrupted traditional Native American social and economic systems and led to widespread poverty and displacement.

In addition to its impact on Native American communities, the Dawes Act also had broader implications for American history and the development of American society. The law reflected a broader trend towards assimilation and cultural homogenization in American society, as well as a desire to expand westward and acquire new lands for settlement and development.

Overall, the Dawes Act was a significant and controversial piece of legislation that had a profound impact on Native American communities and American history. While it was intended to promote assimilation and economic development, its legacy is one of displacement, cultural loss, and ongoing struggles for Native American rights and sovereignty.

Chinese Exclusion Act (1882):

A federal law that suspended Chinese labor to the United States for ten years and denied Chinese immigrants the right to become U.S. citizens. The act was the first significant law restricting immigration into the United States based on ethnicity.

Sherman Antitrust Act (1890):

The Sherman Antitrust Act was a federal law passed in 1890 that sought to promote competition in business and prevent monopolies and other anti-competitive practices.

The Sherman Antitrust Act was an important piece of legislation that helped to shape American economic policy in the years that followed. It has been used to challenge a wide range of anti-competitive practices, including price-fixing, bid-rigging, and other forms of collusion (though at first it was viewed as nothing but a “paper tiger.”

During his presidency, Theodore Roosevelt was a strong advocate of antitrust laws and used the Sherman Antitrust Act to break up a number of large corporations and (bad) trusts that were deemed to be anti-competitive. Three famous trust-busting cases that Roosevelt was involved in include:

1. Northern Securities Co. v. United States (1904): This case involved the Northern Securities Company, a railroad trust that was controlled by J.P. Morgan and other prominent industrialists. Roosevelt ordered the trust to be dissolved, arguing that it was a threat to competition in the railroad industry.
2. Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States (1911): This case involved the Standard Oil Company, a large oil monopoly that controlled much of the oil industry in the United States. The Supreme Court ordered the company to be broken up into smaller, more competitive firms.
3. United States v. American Tobacco Co. (1911): This case involved the American Tobacco Company, a large tobacco trust that controlled much of the tobacco industry in the United States. The Supreme Court ordered the company to be broken up into smaller, more competitive firms.

Overall, the Sherman Antitrust Act and the trust-busting efforts of Roosevelt and other leaders helped to promote competition and prevent the concentration of economic power in the hands of a few large corporations. These efforts helped to shape American economic policy and set the stage for the development of a more competitive and dynamic economy in the years that followed.

Bessemer Process:

An industrial process for mass-producing steel, invented by Henry Bessemer in the mid-19th century. The process enabled the rapid expansion of the steel industry in the United States during the Gilded Age, fueling the growth of railroads, skyscrapers, and other infrastructure.

Ghost Dance Movement:

A Native American spiritual and political movement in the late 19th century, which aimed to revitalize traditional cultures and resist U.S. government policies. The movement culminated in the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, when U.S. troops killed over 150 Lakota Sioux men, women, and children.

Gospel of Wealth and Philanthropy:

The Gospel of Wealth was a philosophy of wealth and philanthropy that was popularized by industrialist and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie in the late 19th century.

Philanthropy is the act of giving or donating money, time, or resources to help others or to support charitable causes. Philanthropy is often motivated by a desire to improve the well-being of individuals or communities, and it can take many forms, including donations to charitable organizations, volunteer work, and advocacy for social or political causes.

Carnegie believed that the accumulation of wealth was a necessary and desirable goal, but that wealthy individuals also had a responsibility to use their wealth for the greater good.

According to Carnegie, the wealthy had a duty to use their wealth to promote the welfare and happiness of society, particularly through charitable giving and philanthropy. He argued that the accumulation of wealth was a natural and necessary aspect of economic progress and that the wealthy had a responsibility to use their wealth to benefit others.

Carnegie believed that the wealthy should use their wealth to fund public institutions such as libraries, universities, and cultural centers, as well as to support social causes such as education, healthcare, and poverty alleviation. He also advocated for the creation of trusts and foundations to manage and distribute wealth in an efficient and effective manner.

The Gospel of Wealth was a significant philosophy of its time and helped to shape attitudes towards wealth and philanthropy in the United States. Carnegie’s ideas were influential in the development of the modern philanthropic sector and continue to be debated and discussed by scholars and philanthropists today.

Social Darwinism:

Social Darwinism was a theory that emerged in the late 19th century and was based on the ideas of natural selection and survival of the fittest. The theory was applied to human society, and proponents of social Darwinism argued that some individuals and groups were inherently more fit and capable than others, and therefore more deserving of wealth and power.

In the context of American history, social Darwinism was often used to justify the social and economic inequalities that existed in society. Proponents of social Darwinism believed that the wealthy and powerful were inherently more fit and capable than the poor and disadvantaged, and that their success was a result of natural selection and survival of the fittest.

Social Darwinism was used to justify a number of policies and practices that discriminated against certain groups of people, particularly immigrants, minorities, and the poor. For example, the eugenics movement, which sought to improve the genetic quality of the population through selective breeding and sterilization, was influenced by the ideas of social Darwinism.

Social Darwinism was also used to justify American expansionism and imperialism, particularly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Proponents of social Darwinism argued that American expansionism was a natural expression of the country’s strength and fitness, and that the acquisition of new territories and peoples was a necessary part of the country’s survival and growth.

Overall, social Darwinism was a significant but controversial philosophy that had a profound impact on American history. While it was used to justify a number of policies and practices that were discriminatory and harmful, it also influenced the development of American imperialism and the country’s role in the world.

Interstate Commerce Act (1887):

A federal law that established the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to regulate the railroad industry and ensure fair pricing and practices. The act was the first federal attempt to regulate the activities of private businesses engaged in interstate commerce.

Granger Laws:

A series of state laws passed in the 1870s aimed at regulating the railroad and grain storage industries in the interest of farmers. The laws were named after the Grange, a national farmers’ organization that advocated for the legislation.

Vertical and Horizontal Integration:

Business strategies employed by Gilded Age industrialists to consolidate and control their industries. Vertical integration involves controlling all aspects of production, from raw materials to finished products, while horizontal integration involves merging or acquiring competitors within the same industry.

Settlement Houses:

Community centers established in urban areas during the late 19th and early 20th centuries to provide social services, education, and advocacy for immigrants and the urban poor. The Hull House, founded by Jane Addams in Chicago, was one of the most famous settlement houses. Jane Addams was a prominent social reformer and activist during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, who founded the Hull House in Chicago and was a key figure in the settlement house movement. Addams was a strong advocate for women’s rights, social justice, and world peace, and she became the first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931.

Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883):

A federal law that established the Civil Service Commission and created a merit-based system for federal government employment. The act aimed to reduce the influence of political patronage and corruption in government hiring practices.

Wounded Knee Massacre (1890)

A tragic event in which U.S. Army soldiers killed over 150 Lakota Sioux men, women, and children on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota. The massacre marked the end of the Indian Wars and the Ghost Dance Movement.

The Great Migration:

A long-term movement of African Americans from the rural South to the urban North during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The migration was driven by a combination of factors, including economic opportunities in Northern industrial cities, racial violence and segregation in the South, and the desire for political and social rights.

Turner Thesis (1893):

Also known as the Frontier Thesis, a theory proposed by historian Frederick Jackson Turner that argued the existence of a continuously expanding frontier was central to the development of American democracy, individualism, and economic growth. Turner’s thesis influenced the study of American history and the nation’s perception of its westward expansion.

New Immigrants:

A term used to describe the wave of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe who came to the United States between the 1880s and early 20th century. These immigrants, often from countries such as Italy, Poland, and Russia, faced discrimination and challenges in assimilating into American society.

Muckrakers:

Investigative journalists during the Progressive Era who sought to expose social, political, and economic problems in the United States, including corruption, inequality, and abuses by corporations. Notable muckrakers included Upton Sinclair, Ida Tarbell, and Lincoln Steffens.

Knights of Labor:

A major labor organization founded in 1869, which sought to improve working conditions, establish an eight-hour workday, and promote equal rights for all workers, including women and African Americans. The organization’s influence declined after the Haymarket Affair in 1886.

American Federation of Labor (AFL)

A labor organization founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers, which focused on skilled workers and sought to improve wages, working conditions, and hours through collective bargaining and strikes. The AFL eventually became the largest and most influential labor organization in the United States.

Laissez-faire Capitalism:

An economic philosophy that advocates for minimal government intervention in the economy and the promotion of individual freedom in business. This approach was the dominant economic policy in the United States during the Gilded Age, contributing to the rapid growth of industry and the rise of powerful corporations.

Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall:

William “Boss” Tweed was a powerful and corrupt New York City politician who led the Democratic political machine known as Tammany Hall during the mid-19th century. Tweed and his associates were notorious for using bribery, fraud, and intimidation to maintain their political power and enrich themselves at the expense of taxpayers.

Political Machine:

A powerful and often corrupt organization that controlled local politics in many American cities during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Political machines provided essential services and support to immigrant communities in exchange for votes, often engaging in bribery, patronage, and fraud to maintain their power.

Social Gospel Movement

A religious and social reform movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which sought to apply Christian principles to address societal problems such as poverty, inequality, and labor exploitation. The movement inspired many progressive reforms and influenced the development of the modern welfare state.

Nativism:

A political and social attitude characterized by opposition to immigration and a preference for native-born citizens. Nativism was prevalent during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in the United States, leading to the enactment of restrictive immigration laws and the rise of organizations like the American Protective Association.

Tenement Housing

Overcrowded and often unsanitary multi-family housing that was common in urban areas during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Tenements were primarily occupied by working-class immigrants and were notorious for their poor living conditions, which contributed to the spread of disease and social unrest.

Graft:

The use of political power for personal gain, often through corruption and dishonest practices. Graft was a common feature of political machines and their leaders, who used their positions to enrich themselves and maintain their control over local politics.

Robber Baron

A term used to describe powerful industrialists and financiers during the Gilded Age, who amassed enormous wealth through aggressive and often exploitative business practices. Examples include John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, and Cornelius Vanderbilt.

The New South

A term used to describe the economic, political, and social transformation of the Southern United States following the Civil War and Reconstruction. The New South emphasized industrialization, modernization, and a diversified economy, in contrast to the plantation-based agricultural system that had dominated the region before the war.

The Pullman Strike (1894):

A major labor strike that began in the town of Pullman, Illinois, and eventually spread nationwide, involving over 250,000 workers. The strike was a response to wage cuts and poor working conditions imposed by the Pullman Palace Car Company. The strike was ultimately crushed by federal troops, and its leaders, including Eugene V. Debs, were arrested, highlighting the tensions between labor and capital during this period.

The Homestead Strike (1892)

was a violent labor dispute that took place at the Homestead Steel Works in Homestead, Pennsylvania, which was owned by Andrew Carnegie and managed by Henry Clay Frick. The strike occurred after Frick announced wage cuts and refused to negotiate with the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers, the union representing many of the skilled workers at the plant. The Pennsylvania state militia was eventually called in to restore order, and the strike was broken after several months. The Homestead Strike marked a significant setback for the labor movement, as it weakened the union’s bargaining power and discouraged other workers from organizing. The event also highlighted the growing tensions between workers and industrialists during the Gilded Age, as well as the willingness of powerful corporations to use force to suppress labor unrest.

The Haymarket Affair (1886):

A labor protest in Chicago that turned violent when a bomb was thrown at police officers, leading to the deaths of several people and the subsequent conviction and execution of several labor activists. The event had a lasting impact on the labor movement and the perception of labor unions in the United States.

Voter Suppression

Voter suppression was a widespread tactic used by white supremacist groups and politicians in the South following the Civil War to prevent African Americans from exercising their newly-won right to vote. Many of these tactics were aimed specifically at African Americans, but they also impacted poor whites and other marginalized groups.

Some of the key methods of voter suppression used after the Civil War included:

1. Poll taxes: Poll taxes were fees that voters were required to pay in order to vote. These taxes were often designed to be prohibitively expensive for poor African Americans and other marginalized groups, and were used to prevent them from participating in the political process.
2. Literacy tests: Many Southern states required voters to pass literacy tests in order to vote. These tests were often administered in a discriminatory manner and were designed to be nearly impossible for African Americans and other marginalized groups to pass.
3. Violence and intimidation: White supremacist groups and politicians often used violence and intimidation to prevent African Americans from voting. This included acts of terrorism, such as lynchings and bombings, as well as more subtle forms of intimidation, such as threats and harassment.
4. Grandfather clauses: Some Southern states passed “grandfather clauses” that exempted voters from literacy tests and other requirements if their grandfathers had been eligible to vote prior to the Civil War. This effectively excluded many African Americans from the voting process, as their grandfathers had been slaves and therefore ineligible to vote.

Overall, voter suppression after the Civil War was a significant part of American history and had a lasting impact on the political and social landscape of the United States. While many of these tactics have been outlawed or abolished in the years since, the legacy of voter suppression can still be felt today, and serves as a reminder of the ongoing struggle for civil rights and social justice in the United States.

Civil War Homefront

The home front during the Civil War was a period of significant social, economic, and political upheaval for people living in both the North and the South. The Civil War was one of the deadliest conflicts in American history, and it had a profound impact on the lives of ordinary citizens.

Here are some key aspects of the home front during the Civil War:

1. Economic changes: The war had a major impact on the economy of both the North and the South. The North saw a significant expansion of industry, as factories worked around the clock to produce weapons, ammunition, and other supplies for the Union army. The South, on the other hand, suffered from a shortage of goods and resources due to the Union blockade of Confederate ports.
2. Women’s roles: Women played a crucial role on the home front during the Civil War, as they took on new responsibilities and helped to support the war effort. Women in both the North and the South worked in factories, served as nurses and caregivers, and managed households and farms in the absence of male family members.
3. Political changes: The Civil War had significant political implications, as the conflict ultimately led to the abolition of slavery and the reunification of the United States. The war also gave rise to new political movements, including the Women’s Suffrage movement and the Reconstruction era, which aimed to rebuild and reshape the South in the aftermath of the conflict.
4. Social changes: The Civil War had a profound impact on American society, as it exposed deep divisions between the North and the South and brought issues of race, slavery, and civil rights to the forefront of national debate. The war also had a lasting impact on the lives of African Americans, many of whom found new opportunities and freedoms in the aftermath of the conflict.

Overall, the home front during the Civil War was a period of significant change and upheaval for Americans across the country. While the conflict was marked by violence and tragedy, it also brought about important social, economic, and political changes that continue to shape American society today.

The 13th Amendment

The 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1865, abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States. This was a significant victory for African Americans, who had been held in bondage for centuries.

However, after the end of slavery, many Southern plantation owners and farmers sought to maintain their economic and social power by creating new systems of labor that effectively replaced slavery. One of these systems was sharecropping, which became widespread throughout the South in the years following the Civil War.

Under the sharecropping system, landowners would provide land, tools, and seed to sharecroppers, who would then work the land and provide a portion of their crop as rent. While sharecropping initially provided an opportunity for African Americans to own and work their own land, it quickly became a system of debt peonage that kept many African Americans in a state of poverty and dependence.

Sharecroppers were often forced to borrow money from landowners to cover their living expenses, and the debt would accumulate over time. Many sharecroppers found themselves trapped in a cycle of debt that they were unable to escape, as their share of the crop was often not enough to cover their living expenses and pay off their debt.

Overall, while the 13th Amendment helped to end slavery in the United States, the rise of sharecropping and other forms of debt peonage underscored the ongoing struggle for economic and social justice for African Americans in the aftermath of the Civil War. The legacy of these systems of labor continues to be felt today, and they highlight the need for ongoing efforts to combat inequality and promote equality and justice for all Americans.

The 14th amendment

The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1868, granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including formerly enslaved people, and guaranteed equal protection of the law to all citizens.

The amendment was a significant victory for African Americans and a key component of the Reconstruction-era efforts to secure civil rights and social justice for African Americans.

However, despite the promises of the 14th Amendment, the rights and freedoms that it guaranteed were often denied to African Americans in the years following Reconstruction. The failure of the federal government to fully enforce the 14th Amendment and protect the civil rights of African Americans contributed to a period of widespread discrimination and violence against African Americans.

Some of the ways in which the promises of the 14th Amendment were broken during Reconstruction include:

1. Failure to enforce civil rights laws: While the 14th Amendment guaranteed equal protection of the law to all citizens, many Southern states enacted laws that effectively denied African Americans their civil rights. The federal government was slow to enforce these laws, and many African Americans were left without legal protection.
2. Rise of white supremacist groups: The years following Reconstruction saw the rise of white supremacist groups like the Ku Klux Klan, who used violence and intimidation to prevent African Americans from exercising their rights. The federal government was often unable or unwilling to protect African Americans from these groups.
3. Discrimination in education and employment: While the 14th Amendment guaranteed equal protection of the law to all citizens, African Americans often faced discrimination in education and employment. Many schools and workplaces were segregated, and African Americans were often denied access to opportunities and resources.

Overall, while the 14th Amendment represented a significant victory for civil rights and social justice, the failure of the federal government to fully enforce the amendment and protect the rights of African Americans contributed to a period of ongoing discrimination and inequality that would persist for many years to come.

The 15th Amendment

The 15th Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1870, prohibited states from denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. This was a significant victory for African Americans, who had been denied the right to vote through various forms of voter suppression, including poll taxes, literacy tests, and violence.

The 15th Amendment helped to enfranchise African American men, who were able to participate in the political process and elect representatives who supported their rights and interests. However, it did not guarantee full voting rights for African Americans, as many Southern states continued to use tactics such as violence and intimidation to prevent African Americans from exercising their right to vote.

The 15th Amendment had a significant impact on the women’s rights movement as well, as it highlighted the fact that women were still not guaranteed the right to vote. While many women had been involved in the abolitionist movement and had fought for the rights of African Americans, the 15th Amendment made it clear that gender discrimination in voting was still a major issue.

The fight for women’s suffrage continued throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with women’s rights activists organizing protests, marches, and other events to demand the right to vote. While it would be several decades before women were granted the right to vote through the passage of the 19th Amendment, the 15th Amendment helped to galvanize the women’s rights movement and highlighted the ongoing struggle for full and equal voting rights for all Americans.

Mexican Cession

The Mexican Cession refers to the territories that Mexico ceded to the United States as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the Mexican-American War in 1848. Under the terms of the treaty, Mexico ceded a vast territory that included parts of present-day California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming.

The Mexican Cession had significant political, economic, and social impacts on both the United States and Mexico. For the United States, it represented a significant expansion of territory and resources, as well as access to valuable ports on the Pacific coast. However, the acquisition of this territory also intensified debates over the expansion of slavery and the rights of Mexican Americans.

For Mexico, the loss of the Mexican Cession was a significant blow, as it represented a significant portion of the country’s territory and natural resources. The treaty also had social and cultural impacts on Mexican Americans, who were suddenly living in a country where they were a minority and faced significant discrimination and marginalization.

Overall, the Mexican Cession was a pivotal moment in American history that helped to shape the country’s development and relationship with Mexico. It also highlights the complex and often fraught history of U.S. expansion and territorial acquisition.

Free Soil Platform

The Free Soil Party was a political party in the United States that emerged in the late 1840s and was active until the mid-1850s. The party was primarily focused on opposing the expansion of slavery into new territories and states.

The Free Soil Party’s platform included several key principles, including:

1. Opposition to the expansion of slavery: The Free Soil Party was strongly opposed to the expansion of slavery into new territories and states. The party believed that allowing slavery to expand would undermine the principles of freedom and democracy upon which the United States was founded.
2. Support for free labor: The Free Soil Party believed in the importance of free labor and opposed the use of slave labor, which they saw as a threat to the economic and social well-being of the country.
3. Support for homesteads: The Free Soil Party advocated for the distribution of public lands to small farmers, which they believed would help to promote economic independence and social stability.

Overall, the Free Soil Party was an important precursor to the Republican Party, which emerged in the 1850s and ultimately succeeded in opposing the expansion of slavery and helping to bring about the end of slavery in the United States. The party’s commitment to opposing slavery and promoting free labor and economic independence helped to galvanize opposition to slavery and contributed to the growing abolitionist movement of the mid-19th century.

The Perry Expedition

The Perry Expedition, also known as the Perry Mission, was a diplomatic and military expedition led by Commodore Matthew Perry of the United States Navy to Japan in 1853. The purpose of the expedition was to establish diplomatic and trade relations between the United States and Japan, which had been largely isolated from the outside world for centuries.

The Perry Expedition was significant because it marked the beginning of a new era of diplomatic and economic engagement between Japan and the West. Prior to the expedition, Japan had largely cut itself off from the outside world, and foreign influence was strictly limited.

Perry’s expedition was successful in achieving its goals, and in 1854, Japan signed the Treaty of Kanagawa with the United States. This treaty opened two Japanese ports to American ships and established a framework for future diplomatic and trade relations between the two countries.

The Perry Expedition had a significant impact on Japanese society and culture, as it exposed the country to new ideas and technologies from the West. It also helped to modernize Japan and set the stage for the country’s rapid economic and political development in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Overall, the Perry Expedition was a significant moment in the history of U.S.-Japan relations and marked the beginning of a new era of engagement and cooperation between the two countries.

The Open Door Policy

The Open Door Policy was a diplomatic initiative put forward by the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that sought to promote equal trading rights for all nations in China. The policy was first proposed by U.S. Secretary of State John Hay in 1899, at a time when China was facing increasing pressure from foreign powers seeking to establish exclusive trading privileges in the country.

The Open Door Policy was significant because it sought to promote a more open and equitable system of international trade and commerce in China. Under the policy, all nations were to be given equal trading rights and opportunities in China, without discrimination or preferential treatment.

The policy was supported by other major powers, including Britain, Germany, France, and Japan, and was enshrined in a series of international treaties and agreements. While the policy did not eliminate the economic and political pressures faced by China in the early 20th century, it helped to promote a more open and equitable system of international trade and commerce in the region.

Overall, the Open Door Policy was a significant moment in the history of U.S. foreign policy and helped to promote greater cooperation and collaboration between the major powers in the early 20th century.

The Annexatio of Hawaii

The annexation of Hawaii was a controversial event that occurred in the late 19th century, when the United States annexed the Hawaiian Islands and made them a U.S. territory. The annexation was driven by a number of factors, including economic interests, strategic military considerations, and cultural and racial attitudes towards the people of Hawaii.

The United States had been involved in Hawaii for many years prior to the annexation, with American businessmen and missionaries establishing a strong presence on the islands in the early 19th century. In the 1890s, a group of American businessmen led a coup against the Hawaiian monarchy, with the support of the U.S. government.

In 1898, the United States formally annexed Hawaii, making it a U.S. territory. The annexation was controversial at the time, with many Hawaiians opposing the move and seeing it as an affront to their sovereignty and independence.

The annexation of Hawaii had significant political, economic, and cultural implications for both the United States and Hawaii. For the United States, it represented a significant expansion of territory and resources, as well as a strategic military outpost in the Pacific. However, the annexation also had negative cultural and political impacts on Hawaii, as the islands were subjected to U.S. laws and policies that often disregarded the needs and interests of the Hawaiian people.

Overall, the annexation of Hawaii was a significant moment in U.S. history, and it highlights the complex and often fraught history of U.S. expansion and territorial acquisition. It also underscores the ongoing struggles for self-determination and sovereignty by indigenous and marginalized peoples around the world.

The Period 4 Key Concepts (1800–1848)

Topic 4.2: The Rise of Political Parties and the Era of Jefferson

• In the early 1800s, national political parties continued to debate issues such as the tariff, powers of the federal government, and relations with European powers.
• Supreme Court decisions established the primacy of the judiciary in determining the meaning of the Constitution and asserted that federal laws took precedence over state laws.
• Following the Louisiana Purchase, the U.S. government sought influence and control over North America through a variety of means, including exploration and diplomatic efforts.

Topic 4.3: Politics and Regional Interests

• Regional interests often trumped national concerns as the basis for many political leaders’ positions on slavery and economic policy.
• Plans to further unify the U.S. economy, such as the American System, generated debates over whether such policies would benefit agriculture or industry, potentially favoring different sections of the country.
• Congressional attempts at political compromise, such as the Missouri Compromise, only temporarily stemmed growing tensions between opponents and defenders of slavery.

Topic 4.4: America on the World Stage

• Struggling to create an independent global presence, the United States sought to claim territory throughout the North American continent and promote foreign trade.
• The U.S. government sought influence and control over the Western Hemisphere through a variety of means, including military actions, American Indian removal, and diplomatic efforts such as the Monroe Doctrine.

Topic 4.5: Market Revolution: Industrialization

• Entrepreneurs helped to create a market revolution in production and commerce, in which market relationships between producers and consumers came to prevail as the manufacture of goods became more organized.
• Innovations including textile machinery, steam engines, interchangeable parts, the telegraph, and agricultural inventions increased the efficiency of production methods.
• Legislation and judicial systems supported the development of roads, and railroads, which extended and enlarged markets and helped foster regional interdependence. Transportation networks linked the North and Midwest more closely than they linked regions in the South.
• Increasing Southern cotton production and the related growth of Northern manufacturing, banking, and shipping industries promoted the development of national and international commercial ties.

Topic 4.6: Market Revolution: Society and Culture

• Large numbers of international migrants moved to industrializing Northern cities, while many Americans moved west of the Appalachians, developing thriving new communities along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers.
• The growth of manufacturing drove a significant increase in prosperity and standards of living for some; this led to the emergence of a larger middle class and a small but wealthy business elite, but also to a large and growing population of laboring poor.
• Increasing numbers of Americans, especially women and men working in factories, no longer relied on semi-subsistence agriculture; instead, they supported themselves by producing goods for distant markets.
• Gender and family roles changed in response to the market revolution, particularly with the growth of definitions of domestic ideals that emphasized the separation of public and private spheres.

Topic 4.7: Expanding Democracy

• The nation’s transition to a more participatory democracy was achieved by expanding suffrage from a system based on property ownership to one based on voting by all adult white men, and it was accompanied by the growth of political parties

Topic 4.8: Jackson and Federal Power

• By the 1820s and 1830s, new political parties arose — the Democrats, led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whigs, led by Henry Clay — that disagreed about the role and powers of the federal government and issues such as the national bank, tariffs, and federally funded internal improvements.
• Frontier settlers tended to champion expansion efforts, while American Indian resistance led to a sequence of wars and federal efforts to control and relocate American Indian populations.

Topic 4.9: The Development of an American Culture

• A new national culture emerged that combined American elements, European influences, and regional cultural sensibilities.
• Liberal social ideas from abroad and Romantic beliefs in human perfectibility influenced literature, art, philosophy, and architecture

Topic 4.10: The Second Great Awakening

• The rise of democratic and individualistic beliefs, a response to rationalism, and changes to society caused by the market revolution, along with greater social and geographical mobility, contributed to a Second Great Awakening among Protestants.

Topic 4.11: An Age of Reform

• The rise of democratic and individualistic beliefs, a response to rationalism, and changes to society caused by the market revolution, along with greater social and geographical mobility, contributed to moral and social reforms and inspired utopian and other religious movements.
• Americans formed new voluntary organizations that aimed to change individual behaviors and improve society through temperance and other reform efforts.
• Abolitionist and antislavery movements gradually achieved emancipation in the North, contributing to the growth of the free African American population, even as many state governments restricted African Americans’ rights.
• Antislavery movements increased in the North.
• A women’s rights movement sought to create greater equality and opportunities for women, expressing its ideals at the Seneca Falls Convention.

Topic 4.12: African Americans in the Early Republic

• Antislavery efforts in the South were largely limited to unsuccessful slave rebellions.
• Enslaved blacks and free African Americans created communities and strategies to protect their dignity and family structures, and they joined political efforts aimed at changing their status.

Topic 4.13: The Society of the South in the Early Republic

• In the South, although the majority of Southerners owned no slaves, most leaders argued that slavery was part of the Southern way of life.
• Southern business leaders continued to rely on the production and export of traditional agricultural staples, contributing to the growth of a distinctive Southern regional identity.
• As over-cultivation depleted arable land in the Southeast, slaveholders began relocating their plantations to more fertile lands west of the Appalachians, where the institution of slavery continued to grow.

The Period 5 Key Concepts (1844–1865)

TOPIC 5.1: Contextualizing Period 5

• The United States became more connected with the world, pursued an expansionist foreign policy in the Western Hemisphere, and emerged as the destination for many migrants from other countries.
• Popular enthusiasm for U.S. expansion, bolstered by economic and security interests, resulted in the acquisition of new territories, substantial migration westward, and new overseas initiatives.
• In the 1840s and 1850s, Americans continued to debate questions about rights and citizenship for various groups of U.S. inhabitants.
• Intensified by expansion and deepening regional divisions, debates over slavery and other economic, cultural, and political issues led the nation into civil war.
• Ideological and economic differences over slavery produced an array of diverging responses from Americans in the North and the South.
• Debates over slavery came to dominate political discussion in the 1850s, culminating in the bitter election of 1860 and the secession of Southern states.
• The Union victory in the Civil War and the contested reconstruction of the South settled the issues of slavery and secession, but left unresolved many questions about the power of the federal government and citizenship rights.
• The North’s greater manpower and industrial resources, the leadership of Abraham Lincoln and others, and the decision to emancipate slaves eventually led to the Union military victory over the Confederacy in the devastating Civil War.
• Reconstruction and the Civil War ended slavery, altered relationships between the states and the federal government, and led to debates over new definitions of citizenship, particularly regarding the rights of African Americans, women, and other minorities.

TOPIC 5.2: Manifest Destiny

• The desire for access to natural and mineral resources and the hope of many settlers for economic opportunities or religious refuge led to an increased migration to and settlement in the West.
• Advocates of annexing western lands argued that Manifest Destiny and the superiority of American institutions compelled the United States to expand its borders westward to the Pacific Ocean.
• Westward migration was boosted during and after the Civil War by the passage of new legislation promoting western transportation and economic development.
• U.S. interest in expanding trade led to economic, diplomatic, and cultural initiatives to create more ties with Asia.

TOPIC 5.3:The Mexican–American War

• The United States added large territories in the West through victory in the Mexican– American War and diplomatic negotiations, raising questions about the status of slavery, American Indians, and Mexicans in the newly acquired lands.
• U.S. government interaction and conflict with Mexican Americans and American Indians increased in regions newly taken from American Indians and Mexico, altering these groups’ economic self-sufficiency and cultures.

TOPIC 5.4: The Compromise of 1850

• The Mexican Cession led to heated controversies over whether to allow slavery in the newly acquired territories.
• The courts and national leaders made a variety of attempts to resolve the issue of slavery in the territories, including the Compromise of 1850.

TOPIC 5.5: Sectional Conflict: Regional Differences

• Substantial numbers of international migrants continued to arrive in the United States from Europe and Asia, mainly from Ireland and Germany, often settling in ethnic communities where they could preserve elements of their languages and customs.
• A strongly anti-Catholic nativist movement arose that was aimed at limiting new immigrants’ political power and cultural influence.
• The North’s expanding manufacturing economy relied on free labor in contrast to the Southern economy’s dependence on slave labor. Some Northerners did not object to slavery on principle but claimed that slavery would undermine the free labor market. As a result, a free-soil movement arose that portrayed the expansion of slavery as incompatible with free labor.
• African American and white abolitionists, although a minority in the North, mounted a highly visible campaign against slavery, presenting moral arguments against the institution, assisting slaves’ escapes, and sometimes expressing a willingness to use violence to achieve their goals.
• Defenders of slavery based their arguments on racial doctrines, the view that slavery was a positive social good, and the belief that slavery and states’ rights were protected by the Constitution.

TOPIC 5.6: Failure of Compromise

• The courts and national leaders made a variety of attempts to resolve the issue of slavery in the territories, including the Kansas–Nebraska Act, and the Dred Scott decision, but these ultimately failed to reduce conflict.
• The Second Party System ended when the issues of slavery and anti-immigrant nativism weakened loyalties to the two major parties and fostered the emergence of sectional parties, most notably the Republican Party in the North.

TOPIC 5.7: Election of 1860 and Secession

• Abraham Lincoln’s victory on the Republicans’ free-soil platform in the presidential election of 1860 was accomplished without any Southern electoral votes. After a series of contested debates about secession, most slave states voted to secede from the Union, precipitating the Civil War.

TOPIC 5.8: Military Conflict in the Civil War

• Both the Union and the Confederacy mobilized their economies and societies to wage the war even while facing considerable home front opposition.
• Although the Confederacy showed military initiative and daring early in the war, the Union ultimately succeeded due to improvements in leadership and strategy, key victories, greater resources, and the wartime destruction of the South’s infrastructure.

TOPIC 5.9: Government Policies During the Civil War

• Lincoln and most Union supporters began the Civil War to preserve the Union, but Lincoln’s decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation reframed the purpose of the war and helped prevent the Confederacy from gaining full diplomatic support from European powers. Many African Americans fled southern plantations and enlisted in the Union Army, helping to undermine the Confederacy.
• Lincoln sought to reunify the country and used speeches such as the Gettysburg Address to portray the struggle against slavery as the fulfillment of America’s founding democratic ideals.

TOPIC 5.10: Reconstruction

• Reconstruction altered relationships between the states and the federal government and led to debates over new definitions of citizenship, particularly regarding the rights of African Americans, women, and other minorities.
• The 13th Amendment abolished slavery, while the 14th and 15th amendments granted African Americans citizenship, equal protection under the laws, and voting rights.
• The women’s rights movement was both emboldened and divided over the 14th and 15th amendments to the Constitution.
• Efforts by radical and moderate Republicans to change the balance of power between Congress and the presidency and to reorder race relations in the defeated South yielded some short-term successes. Reconstruction opened up political opportunities and other leadership roles to former slaves, but it ultimately failed, due both to determined Southern resistance and the North’s waning resolve.

TOPIC 5.11: Failure of Reconstruction

• Southern plantation owners continued to own the majority of the region’s land even after Reconstruction. Former slaves sought land ownership but generally fell short of self-sufficiency, as an exploitative and soil-intensive sharecropping system limited blacks’ and poor whites’ access to land in the South.
• Segregation, violence, Supreme Court decisions, and local political tactics progressively stripped away African American rights, but the 14th and 15th amendments eventually became the basis for court decisions upholding civil rights in the 20th century