An APUSH P7-P9 Review

Produced in collaboration with CHatGPT

This post opens with a listing of 60 words, terms, and phrases expressly mentioned in the APUSH CED’s P7-P9 Key Concepts, with each term defined by ChatGPT.

The post then closes out with a listing of the APUSH CED’s P7-P9 Key Concepts, with the defined words, terms, and phrases appearing in bold.

I plan to put this work in front of my students when we begin to review for the annual exam. If you notice any glaring errors or omissions (or take issue with anything written) and wish to give me a heads-up, I can be reached at ppaccone@smusd.us.

The Words, Terms, Phrases

1. Imperialists / Anti-Imperialists— Imperialists believe in expanding a country’s power and influence by acquiring colonies and territories abroad, while anti-imperialists believe in avoiding such expansion and respecting the sovereignty of other nations. This debate was particularly relevant in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as the United States acquired territories in the Caribbean and Pacific.
2. Closing of the frontier — refers to the idea that the western frontier of the United States was officially declared “closed” in 1890 with the publication of the census report on the western frontier. It signaled the end of the era of westward expansion and the need for new policies to deal with a settled and increasingly urbanized country.
3. The Spanish-American War — a conflict between Spain and the United States in 1898. The war was primarily fought over the issue of Cuban independence, which Spain had been trying to suppress through military force for several years. One of the major events that led to the outbreak of the war was the sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor in February 1898. The cause of the explosion that sank the Maine is still uncertain, but at the time it was widely believed to have been the result of an attack by Spanish forces. This incident outraged the American public and helped to build support for a war against Spain. Another important factor in the lead-up to the war was the role of yellow journalism. Yellow journalism was a type of sensationalized reporting that was popular at the time, and many newspapers used it to drum up support for war with Spain. Some newspapers published exaggerated or even completely fabricated stories about Spanish atrocities in Cuba, which helped to whip up public sentiment against Spain. The combination of the sinking of the Maine and the influence of yellow journalism helped to push the United States into war with Spain. The conflict lasted only a few months and resulted in a decisive victory for the United States, which gained control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The war marked a turning point in American history, as the United States emerged as a major world power and began to assert itself more aggressively on the global stage. The war marked the emergence of the United States as a world power with imperial ambitions and a desire to expand its influence beyond its borders.
4. Progressive Era — a period of reform and social activism in the United States from the late 19th century to the early 20th century. During this time, there was a widespread sense that the country was facing a number of social, economic, and political problems that needed to be addressed. Some of the key issues that progressives sought to address included: Corruption in government: Many progressives believed that government was too corrupt and controlled by special interests, and sought to reform it by advocating for measures such as direct election of senators, campaign finance reform, and civil service reform. Economic inequality: Progressives were concerned about the growing gap between the rich and poor, and sought to address this by advocating for measures such as minimum wage laws, workplace safety regulations, and the establishment of labor unions. Social justice: Many progressives were concerned about issues such as women’s suffrage, civil rights for African Americans, and child labor laws, and sought to address these issues through legal and political reforms. Conservation and environmentalism: Progressives were also concerned about the impact of industrialization on the environment, and sought to address this through measures such as the establishment of national parks and forests, and the regulation of industry to reduce pollution. Some of the most important reforms that were implemented during the Progressive Era included the Pure Food and Drug Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, the establishment of the Federal Reserve System, and the passage of the 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote Overall, the Progressive Era was a time of significant social and political change in the United States, and its legacy can still be seen in many of the reforms and institutions that we have today.
5. Progressive Era journalists: During the Progressive Era in the United States, journalists played an important role in exposing social and political problems and advocating for reform. One of the most famous progressive-era journalists was Upton Sinclair, who wrote “The Jungle,” a novel that exposed the unsanitary conditions and exploitative labor practices in the meatpacking industry. In addition to Sinclair, there were many other journalists who played a significant role in the progressive movement. Among them was Jacob Riis, best known for his book “How the Other Half Lives,” which documented the living conditions of poor immigrants in New York City.
6. Progressive amendments to the Constitution: During the Progressive Era, several amendments to the Constitution were ratified. The 16th Amendment gave Congress the power to impose a federal income tax. Prior to this amendment, the federal government relied mainly on tariffs and excise taxes to fund its operations. The income tax helped to create a more progressive tax system, in which higher-income individuals paid a larger share of their income in taxes. The 17th Amendment provided for the direct election of senators by the people of each state. Prior to this amendment, senators were chosen by state legislatures. The direct election of senators helped to make the Senate more responsive to the will of the people and reduced the influence of political machines and special interests. The 19th Amendment granted women the right to vote. The women’s suffrage movement had been active for many years prior to the ratification of this amendment, but it was not until the Progressive Era that it gained significant traction. The 19th Amendment helped to create a more inclusive democracy and paved the way for future civil rights movements. The 18th Amendment is also considered a Progressive Era amendment. It was ratified in 1919 and prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages in the United States. Prohibition was seen as a way to promote social reform and improve public health and safety, as alcohol abuse was seen as a major social problem at the time. However, Prohibition ultimately proved to be a failure, as it led to the rise of organized crime and the illegal production and distribution of alcohol. It was also widely disregarded and difficult to enforce, leading to a decline in respect for the rule of law. Despite its failure, the 18th Amendment is still considered a significant part of the Progressive Era legacy, as it reflects the period’s focus on social reform and the belief that government could play an active role in improving society. The repeal of Prohibition with the ratification of the 21st Amendment in 1933 is also seen as a reflection of the Progressive Era’s belief in the ability of citizens to influence government policy through democratic means.
7. Preservationists and conservationists — During the Progressive Era, there was an ongoing debate between preservationists and conservationists over how best to manage natural resources in the United States. Preservationists were advocates of protecting natural environments and wildlife from human intervention and development. They believed that certain areas, such as national parks and forests, should be preserved in their natural state for future generations to enjoy. Preservationists argued that these areas had value in and of themselves, and should be protected from exploitation or commercial development. Conservationists, on the other hand, were advocates of sustainable use of natural resources, including timber, minerals, and water. They believed that these resources could be used to benefit society, but only if they were managed responsibly and with an eye toward future generations. Conservationists argued that human activities such as logging and mining could be conducted in a way that was both environmentally responsible and economically beneficial. The debate between preservationists and conservationists was not always clear-cut, and there were many shades of opinion within each camp. Some conservationists, for example, believed that certain areas should be set aside for preservation, while others argued that all natural resources could be sustainably managed. During the Progressive Era, both preservationists and conservationists had a significant impact on government policy. President Theodore Roosevelt, for example, was a conservationist who championed the sustainable use of natural resources and was instrumental in the establishment of national forests and parks. On the other hand, John Muir, founder of the Sierra Club, was a preservationist who fought to preserve wilderness areas such as Yosemite Valley and the Grand Canyon.
8. Woodrow Wilson’s call for the defense of humanitarian and democratic principles: During World War I, President Woodrow Wilson initially sought to keep the United States out of the conflict, but eventually became convinced that American intervention was necessary to defend humanitarian and democratic principles. Wilson believed that the war was not simply a conflict between nations, but a struggle between the forces of democracy and the forces of autocracy. When the war broke out in 1914, Wilson declared American neutrality and urged both sides to respect international law and human rights. However, as the war dragged on and the casualties mounted, Wilson became increasingly concerned about the impact of the conflict on the world and on American interests. He believed that the United States had a moral obligation to defend the principles of democracy and freedom, and that the country had the power and the responsibility to act as a global leader. Several events pushed the United States towards intervention in the war. The sinking of the Lusitania, a British passenger ship carrying American passengers, by a German submarine in 1915 caused outrage in the United States and increased calls for intervention. Wilson also became increasingly concerned about Germany’s use of unrestricted submarine warfare, which threatened American shipping and commerce. In 1917, the interception of the Zimmermann Telegram, a message from Germany proposing a military alliance with Mexico against the United States, further convinced Wilson that American intervention was necessary to protect the country’s interests. In April 1917, Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany, citing the need to defend democracy and human rights. In a speech to Congress, he declared that the world must be made safe for democracy and that the United States had a duty to help make this a reality. The United States entered the war on the side of the Allies and played a significant role in the eventual defeat of Germany. After the war, Wilson put forward his “Fourteen Points” as a blueprint for a new world order based on democratic principles and international cooperation. The points included provisions for disarmament, free trade, self-determination for nations, and the establishment of an international organization to promote peace and prevent future wars. While many of the points were ultimately not included in the Treaty of Versailles, they laid the foundation for the post-war order and influenced the development of international law and diplomacy in the 20th century.
9. American Expeditionary Force — refers to the United States military force that served in Europe during World War I. The AEF played a key role in helping to turn the tide of the war in favor of the Allies, and its soldiers were praised for their bravery and determination in the face of a formidable enemy.
10. The First and Second Red Scares — periods of intense anti-communist and anti-radical sentiment in the United States, characterized by government repression, social hysteria, and widespread fear of communist infiltration and subversion. The First Red Scare occurred in the aftermath of World War I, as fears of radicalism and anarchism increased in response to the Russian Revolution and the Bolsheviks’ rise to power. The government responded with a series of raids and arrests, targeting suspected radicals and immigrants. The most infamous incident of the First Red Scare was the Palmer Raids, a series of coordinated arrests and deportations carried out by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer in 1919–1920. Thousands of people were rounded up and detained, often without evidence or due process. The Second Red Scare occurred in the late 1940s and early 1950s, as fears of communist infiltration in the government, media, and society reached a fever pitch. The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) and Senator Joseph McCarthy led a campaign of investigations and public hearings, accusing hundreds of people of being communists or communist sympathizers. The Hollywood blacklist, which denied work to suspected leftists in the entertainment industry, was a particularly infamous result of the Second Red Scare. One of the most famous cases associated with the Red Scare was that of Sacco and Vanzetti, two Italian immigrants and anarchists who were accused of robbery and murder in 1920. The trial was marked by anti-immigrant and anti-radical bias, and despite protests and appeals for clemency, Sacco and Vanzetti were convicted and sentenced to death in 1927. Their case became a cause célèbre for progressives, socialists, and civil libertarians, who saw their trial and execution as an example of the government’s repressive and discriminatory policies towards immigrants and radicals.
11. Quotas that restricted immigration (in the 1920s) — a series of laws passed by the United States Congress that limited the number of immigrants who could enter the country based on their country of origin. The laws were designed to restrict immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe, as well as from Asia, and were driven by concerns over job competition, cultural assimilation, and national security. The first of these laws was the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, which established a quota system based on the country of origin of the immigrants. The quota was set at 3% of the number of foreign-born residents from that country living in the United States in 1910. The law was designed to restrict immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe, which was seen as a threat to American values and culture. The Immigration Act of 1924, also known as the National Origins Act, expanded the quota system and further restricted immigration. The law reduced the annual quota to 2% and changed the base year for the quota calculation to 1890, which excluded many recent immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe. The law also excluded all immigrants from Asia, with the exception of a small quota for Filipinos, who were then a U.S. territory. The quotas had a significant impact on immigration patterns, with many potential immigrants being denied entry or discouraged from even attempting to come to the United States. The laws were also criticized for being discriminatory and racist, as they favored immigrants from Northern and Western Europe while excluding those from other regions.
12. The 1965 Immigration Act — The quotas remained in place until the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which abolished the quota system and established a new system based on family reunification and skills-based criteria. The legacy of the quota laws, however, continues to be felt today, as debates over immigration policy and border control remain contentious issues in American politics and society.
13. The First Great Migration— The First Great Migration was a period of mass migration of African Americans from the rural South to the urban North that occurred between 1910 and 1930. The migration was driven by a combination of factors, including the search for economic opportunities, the desire to escape racial segregation and violence, and the hope for a better life for future generations. During this time, hundreds of thousands of African Americans left the rural South, primarily from states such as Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia, and moved to cities such as Chicago, Detroit, and New York. They were drawn by the growing demand for industrial labor in northern cities, as well as by the promise of better wages, working conditions, and educational opportunities. The migration had a profound impact on American society and culture. It transformed the demographic makeup of northern cities, which saw their African American populations increase dramatically. It also gave rise to new forms of African American culture, including literature, music, and art, as migrants brought their traditions and experiences with them to the North. The migration was not without its challenges, however. African Americans faced discrimination and prejudice in the North, as well as competition for jobs and housing. Racial tensions occasionally boiled over into violence, as in the 1919 Chicago Race Riot, which left dozens of people dead and hundreds injured. Despite these challenges, the First Great Migration marked a major turning point in American history, as it challenged traditional patterns of racial segregation and paved the way for future civil rights struggles. The migration also had a profound impact on the African American community, shaping their culture, identity, and political consciousness in new and powerful ways.
14. The Second Great Migration — refers to a period of mass migration of African Americans from the rural South to the urban North and West that occurred between 1940 and 1970. The migration was driven by a combination of factors, including the search for better economic opportunities, the desire to escape racial segregation and violence, and the hope for a better life for future generations. During this time, millions of African Americans left the rural South, primarily from states such as Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia, and moved to cities such as Detroit, Chicago, New York, Los Angeles, and Oakland. They were drawn by the expanding job opportunities in defense industries during World War II and the postwar economic boom, as well as by the promise of better wages, working conditions, and educational opportunities. The migration had a significant impact on American society and culture. It transformed the demographic makeup of northern and western cities, which saw their African American populations increase dramatically. The migration also contributed to the rise of new forms of African American culture, such as jazz, blues, and gospel music, as well as literature, art, and fashion. The migration was not without its challenges, however. African Americans faced discrimination and prejudice in the North and West, as well as competition for jobs and housing. Racial tensions occasionally boiled over into violence, as in the 1965 Watts Riots in Los Angeles. Despite these challenges, the Second Great Migration marked a major turning point in American history, as it challenged traditional patterns of racial segregation and paved the way for future civil rights struggles. The migration also had a profound impact on the African American community, shaping their culture, identity, and political consciousness in new and powerful ways.
15. Radio and cinema — the 20th century saw the emergence of new forms of mass media, such as radio and cinema, which enabled people to consume news and entertainment on a large scale. These new media forms transformed American society and culture, shaping public opinion and contributing to the spread of popular culture.
16. World War I nativist campaigns: During World War I, nativist campaigns emerged in the United States, fueled by fears of German and other immigrant communities. These campaigns targeted immigrant communities and led to widespread suspicion and discrimination against German Americans and others.
17. The Harlem Renaissance: The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural movement that emerged in the 1920s in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City. It was characterized by a flourishing of African American art, music, literature, and intellectual life, and it played a major role in the development of a distinct African American cultural identity.
18. The Great Depression — a period of severe economic downturn that began in 1929 and lasted through much of the 1930s. It was marked by widespread unemployment (25%), poverty, and social upheaval, and it had a profound impact on American society and politics.
19. A limited welfare state — in the early 20th century, the United States government had a limited welfare state, with few social safety net programs to support vulnerable populations. This lack of support contributed to widespread poverty and hardship during the Great Depression, and it spurred the development of new government programs such as Social Security and Medicare.
20. Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal —Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal was a series of domestic policies and programs aimed at stimulating economic recovery and providing relief to Americans during the Great Depression. The New Deal was launched in 1933, in the midst of the Great Depression, and continued until the late 1930s. The New Deal included a range of programs and policies, some of the most prominent of which are outlined below: Works Progress Administration (WPA): The WPA was a public works program that employed millions of Americans in construction and infrastructure projects, such as roads, bridges, and public buildings. It also funded the arts, employing writers, musicians, and artists. Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): The CCC was a program that employed young, unemployed men to work on conservation projects, such as reforestation, erosion control, and wildlife conservation. Social Security Act: The Social Security Act established a national system of pensions, unemployment insurance, and welfare benefits for retirees, the unemployed, and other vulnerable groups. Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA): The AAA sought to raise crop prices by paying farmers to reduce production, thus lowering supply and driving up demand. National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA): The NIRA established a system of codes for fair competition and collective bargaining in various industries, with the aim of raising wages and stabilizing prices. While the New Deal was widely popular, it also faced significant opposition from conservatives and others who argued that it represented an unwarranted expansion of federal power. Some critics also argued that the New Deal did not go far enough in addressing the underlying causes of the Great Depression, and called for more radical reforms. Despite this opposition, the New Deal had a significant impact on American society and politics, laying the groundwork for a more activist and interventionist federal government. Many of the New Deal programs, such as Social Security, continue to be important components of the American social safety net.
21. The long-term political realignment (brought on by the New Deal) — the New Deal marked a long-term political realignment in the United States, as many voters shifted their allegiance from the Republican Party to the Democratic Party. This shift was driven by the Democrats’ embrace of the New Deal and their support for social welfare programs and government intervention in the economy.
22. World War II and migration — World War II led to a significant migration of people within the United States, as well as from other countries. The war created a demand for workers in industrial sectors, and many people moved to cities to take advantage of job opportunities.
23. Unilateral foreign policy after World War II — after World War II, the United States adopted a policy of unilateralism in its foreign policy, aimed at promoting American interests and containing the spread of communism. This policy had far-reaching implications for global politics and helped to shape the postwar world order.
24. Interwar Foreign Policy — in the interwar period between World War I and World War II, American foreign policy was characterized by isolationism and a reluctance to engage in global affairs. This policy was motivated by a desire to avoid another costly and devastating war.
25. Fascism and totalitarianism — Fascism and totalitarianism emerged as major threats to global peace and stability in the 20th century. The United States played a key role in fighting these ideologies during World War II, and its efforts helped to pave the way for the postwar liberal order.
26. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor — a major turning point in World War II, as it drew the United States into the conflict and galvanized American support for the war effort.
27. The mass mobilization of American society in the late 1940s: World War II led to a massive mobilization of American society, as the country ramped up production of military equipment and supplies, and citizens contributed to the war effort through rationing and other measures.
28. The internment of Japanese Americans — during World War II, the United States government interned over 120,000 Japanese Americans, many of whom were U.S. citizens, in internment camps. This was based on the belief that Japanese Americans posed a national security threat and might be loyal to Japan rather than the United States. The internment was authorized by Executive Order 9066, which was issued by President Franklin D. Roosevelt a few months after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Japanese Americans were forcibly removed from their homes and businesses and sent to internment camps located in remote and desolate areas of the country. One of the most controversial aspects of the internment was the Supreme Court’s decision in Korematsu v. United States (1944), which upheld the constitutionality of the internment. In a 6–3 decision, the Court ruled that the internment was justified as a “military necessity” in order to protect against espionage and sabotage by Japanese Americans. The decision has been widely criticized and is now considered a dark chapter in American legal history. It’s important to note that despite being interned, over 33,000 Japanese Americans served in the U.S. military during World War II, including the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, which was made up entirely of Japanese Americans and became the most decorated unit in U.S. military history. This service was a way for Japanese Americans to prove their loyalty to the United States and to fight against the country that had attacked it. In the years following World War II, the U.S. government formally apologized for the internment and paid reparations to surviving Japanese American internees. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act, which formally apologized for the internment and provided financial compensation to surviving internees. The internment remains a powerful reminder of the dangers of racism, xenophobia, and prejudice in times of crisis.
29. Immigration to the United States from Mexico and elsewhere in the Western Hemisphere during World War II and up to 1980: World War II led to increased migration to the United States from Mexico and other countries in the Western Hemisphere. This migration was driven by a variety of factors, including economic opportunity (a chance to work in factories and on farms) and political instability in their home countries.
30. The Holocaust — the Holocaust was a genocide of Jews and other minorities by Nazi Germany during World War II. The United States played a limited role in admitting refugees and displaced persons during the war, and its response has been criticized as inadequate.
31. Postwar World War II Diplomacy up to 1980 — the post-World War II period was marked by the emergence of two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, which engaged in a Cold War that lasted until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The US pursued a policy of containment, seeking to prevent the spread of communism, and engaged in a series of international crises, including the Korean War and the Cuban Missile Crisis.
32. A free-market global economy — after World War II, the US led efforts to establish a free-market global economy, through institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and through trade liberalization initiatives such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. This contributed to a period of sustained economic growth and prosperity in many parts of the world.
33. Détente — refers to a period in the 1970s when the United States and the Soviet Union experienced a temporary reduction in tension. The period was characterized by arms control agreements, increased economic cooperation, and diplomatic initiatives such as President Nixon’s visit to China in 1972. One key feature of détente was the creation of a “hotline” between Washington D.C. and Moscow, which allowed for direct communication between the two superpowers in the event of a crisis. Despite these positive developments, détente was short-lived, and tensions between the US and the USSR resumed in the late 1970s.
34. The baby boom — a post-World War II period that saw a dramatic increase in birth rates in the United States, known as the baby boom. This had a significant impact on American society, as the children of the baby boom became the largest generation in US history and influenced cultural and political trends for decades.
35. The Rust Belt Migration — refers to the movement of people from the Northeast and Midwest regions of the US to the South and West, driven by changes in the economy and job opportunities. This migration had a significant impact on the demographics and politics of the country.
36. Increasingly homogeneous mass culture— the post-World War II period saw the emergence of mass media and consumer culture, which contributed to a sense of cultural homogeneity across the United States. This was facilitated by the rise of television, which brought a shared experience of national news, entertainment, and advertising to millions of Americans. The claim that there was “a sense of cultural homogeneity across the United States in the post-war years” refers to the perception that American culture had become increasingly uniform and standardized across different regions of the country. This was largely due to the rise of mass media, such as television and radio, which allowed for the dissemination of a common set of cultural values and norms. It was also influenced by the growing suburbanization and consumer culture, which encouraged a shared lifestyle and consumption patterns. This sense of cultural homogeneity was not without its critics, however, as some argued that it stifled diversity and individuality, and contributed to the marginalization of certain groups, such as racial and ethnic minorities.
37. Civil Rights Movement (1940s and 1950s) — The post-World War II period saw the emergence of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, which aimed to end segregation and discrimination against African Americans. Early steps in this movement included legal challenges to segregation, such as the landmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision in 1954. In 1955, Rosa Parks, a black woman, refused to give up her seat on a Montgomery, Alabama bus to a white passenger, sparking the Montgomery Bus Boycott, a year-long protest against the city’s segregated bus system. The boycott was successful in pressuring the city to change its policies. In 1957, civil rights leaders including Martin Luther King Jr. formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to coordinate nonviolent resistance to segregation and promote civil rights. These early steps paved the way for more significant victories in the 1960s, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which aimed to end discrimination in voting and public accommodations.
38. Civil Rights Movement (1960s) and the role each branch played— each branch of the government played a role in the civil rights movement, although to varying degrees. The legislative branch, especially Congress, played a crucial role in passing civil rights legislation. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, for example, were landmark pieces of legislation that outlawed segregation and discrimination in public accommodations and employment, and prohibited states from using discriminatory practices to prevent African Americans from voting. The executive branch, particularly the presidency, played a vital role in enforcing civil rights laws, integerating the armed forces, and implementing policies that advanced the cause of civil rights. The judicial branch, particularly the Supreme Court, played a critical role in interpreting the Constitution and ruling on cases related to civil rights. The Supreme Court’s landmark decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which declared that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, was a significant victory for the civil rights movement.
39. The military-industrial complex — refers to the close relationship between the US military and the defense industry, which emerged during World War II and became a significant force in the postwar economy. This relationship has been criticized for promoting excessive defense spending and contributing to a culture of militarism in American society.
40. Korean War —a conflict between North Korea, which was supported by the Soviet Union and China, and South Korea, which was supported by the United States and its allies. The war began in 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea, and was fought to a stalemate until an armistice was signed in 1953. The US involvement in the Korean War was part of its larger Cold War strategy to contain the spread of communism, and the war was seen as a test of the Truman Doctrine, which promised to provide military and economic aid to countries threatened by communism. The war was also notable for its use of new military technologies, such as jet aircraft and helicopters, and for the large number of civilian casualties. The Korean War had a lasting impact on East Asian politics and international relations, contributing to the ongoing division between North and South Korea and shaping US foreign policy in the region for decades to come.
41. The Vietnam War — The Vietnam War was fought from 1955 to 1975, and it was a conflict between North Vietnam, which was supported by the Soviet Union and China, and South Vietnam, which was supported by the United States and its allies. The war was fought primarily as part of the US policy of containment of communism, which was aimed at preventing the spread of communism beyond its existing borders. The US government believed that if the communist forces in North Vietnam were allowed to win the war, then the neighboring countries in Southeast Asia would also fall to communism, creating a domino effect. This idea was known as the “domino theory.” To prevent this from happening, the US government provided military and economic assistance to South Vietnam, including troops and supplies. The US also engaged in a policy of “escalation,” which involved increasing the number of troops and bombing campaigns in an attempt to weaken the North Vietnamese military and force them to negotiate a peace settlement. However, this policy was met with significant resistance from anti-war protesters, who argued that the war was unjust and immoral. Ultimately, the US was not able to achieve its objectives in the Vietnam War, and the conflict ended with the fall of Saigon to the North Vietnamese forces in 1975. The war had a significant impact on US foreign policy and the American public’s perception of war, leading to increased skepticism of government and military actions abroad.
42. The War Powers Act — The War Powers Act, also known as the War Powers Resolution, is a federal law passed in 1973 that sought to limit the power of the executive branch in committing US military forces to an armed conflict. The Act requires that the President notify Congress within 48 hours of committing armed forces to military action and limits the deployment of troops to 60 days, with an additional 30-day withdrawal period unless Congress authorizes a longer deployment. The Act was passed by Congress in response to the Vietnam War and concerns about the power of the President to commit troops to military action without Congressional approval. The Act was designed to ensure that the President would consult with Congress before taking military action, and to provide Congress with a means of checking the President’s power to commit troops to war. However, the effectiveness of the War Powers Act has been debated, with some arguing that it has not been effective in limiting the power of the executive branch, and that Presidents have found ways to circumvent its requirements. The Act has been invoked by Presidents on several occasions, but Congress has not exercised its authority under the Act to end military engagements or force the withdrawal of troops.
43. Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society — Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society was a set of domestic programs and policies aimed at ending poverty and racial injustice and improving the quality of life for all Americans. The Great Society encompassed a wide range of initiatives, including civil rights legislation, anti-poverty programs, education reform, and healthcare reform. One of the key initiatives of the Great Society was the War on Poverty, which aimed to eliminate poverty through a variety of measures such as food stamps, job training programs, and increased access to healthcare. Another important initiative was the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which aimed to remove barriers to African American voting. The Great Society also included education reform, such as the creation of Head Start, a program aimed at providing early childhood education to children from low-income families. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 provided federal funding for education, particularly in schools serving low-income communities. However, the Great Society faced criticism and opposition from some who believed that it represented an overreach of federal power and would lead to a dependence on government programs. The Kerner Commission report, commissioned by Johnson to investigate the causes of the urban riots that occurred in the mid-1960s, identified racism and poverty as the root causes of the unrest, and called for increased government action to address these issues. Despite its successes and failures, the Great Society represented a significant expansion of the federal government’s role in addressing social and economic issues, and its impact can still be felt today.
44. Martin Luther King Jr.’s philosophy of legal challenges, direct action, and nonviolent protest tactics — Martin Luther King Jr. was a key figure in the Civil Rights Movement, which aimed to end racial discrimination and segregation in the United States. He utilized various strategies to combat these issues, including legal challenges, direct action, and nonviolent protest tactics. King believed in using the legal system to challenge discriminatory laws and practices. He worked with organizations such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) to challenge segregation laws in court. He also advocated for voting rights and worked to ensure that African Americans had equal access to the polls. In addition to legal challenges, King was a strong advocate of direct action, such as sit-ins and boycotts. He believed that these tactics could draw attention to the injustice of segregation and force change. One of his most famous direct action campaigns was the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955–56, which led to the desegregation of the city’s bus system. Perhaps most famously, King advocated for nonviolent protest tactics, inspired by the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi. He believed that nonviolence could bring about social change without resorting to violence or retaliation. King organized marches, demonstrations, and other forms of civil disobedience, all with the goal of achieving racial justice and equality. Despite facing violence and opposition, King remained committed to his cause and became an iconic figure in the fight for civil rights. The Kerner Commission report, which was commissioned by President Johnson to investigate the causes of the 1967 race riots in several American cities, highlighted the continued discrimination faced by African Americans and the urgent need for social and economic reforms to address these issues. King’s efforts and legacy played an important role in shaping the civil rights movement and continue to inspire activists fighting for social justice today.
45. The efficacy of nonviolence increased after 1965 — after the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, many African Americans began to question the efficacy of nonviolence as a tactic for achieving social and political change. The nonviolent civil rights movement had succeeded in bringing about significant legislative changes, but it had not eliminated deep-seated racial inequality or the economic and social disparities that continued to plague African American communities. Some black activists began to advocate for more militant tactics, arguing that nonviolence was ineffective against the entrenched racism and systemic oppression they faced. These activists, such as Malcolm X and the Black Panther Party, called for armed self-defense and direct action, including protests, boycotts, and sometimes violent resistance. At the same time, other African Americans continued to believe in the power of nonviolence and sought to use legal challenges, protests, and civil disobedience to achieve their goals. Leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference continued to advocate for nonviolent tactics, arguing that they were more likely to win the support of the broader public and avoid violent confrontation with law enforcement. Overall, the debate over nonviolence among African Americans reflected a growing frustration with the slow pace of change and the persistence of discrimination and inequality, as well as a recognition that different tactics might be necessary to achieve lasting social and political transformation.
46. The Latino civil rights movement — emerged in the 1960s and 1970s as a response to the discrimination and marginalization experienced by Mexican Americans and other Latinos in the United States. The movement sought to assert a distinct cultural identity and demand greater political and social rights. It included protests and demonstrations, as well as efforts to improve education, healthcare, and other services in Latino communities. Here are some examples of key figures and events associated with this movement: Cesar Chavez and the United Farm Workers, which organized strikes and boycotts to demand better wages and working conditions for farm workers in California. The Chicano Moratorium, a series of protests against the Vietnam War and discrimination against Mexican Americans, culminating in a violent clash with police in Los Angeles in 1970; The creation of the National Council of La Raza in 1968, which worked to advance Latino civil rights and improve education, employment, and healthcare for Latino communities
47. The American Indian civil rights movement — emerged in the late 1960s and sought to address the ongoing oppression and mistreatment of Native Americans in the United States. It included protests and demonstrations, as well as efforts to reclaim Native American land and preserve indigenous cultures. The movement was also involved in advocacy for legal rights and representation. Here are some examples of key figures and events associated with this movements: The occupation of Alcatraz Island in 1969, which was led by Native American activists and aimed to reclaim land that had been taken from indigenous peoples; The Wounded Knee incident in 1973, in which AIM activists occupied the site of the 1890 Wounded Knee massacre in South Dakota, demanding greater recognition of indigenous rights; The Longest Walk in 1978, a cross-country protest march led by Native American activists to protest proposed legislation that would have terminated tribal sovereignty and rights; The establishment of the Native American Rights Fund in 1971, which provides legal assistance and advocacy for Native American tribes and individuals
48. The Asian American civil rights movement — emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s, as Asian Americans sought to challenge stereotypes and discrimination and demand greater representation and political power. The movement included protests and demonstrations, as well as efforts to establish Asian American studies programs in universities and advocate for legal and civil rights. Here are some examples of key figures and events associated with this movements: The formation of the Asian American Political Alliance in 1968, which sought to challenge stereotypes and discrimination against Asian Americans and demand greater political representation; The Third World Strike at San Francisco State University in 1968–69, which included Asian American student activists and led to the creation of the nation’s first ethnic studies programs; The murder of Vincent Chin in 1982, which galvanized Asian American activists and led to protests and demands for greater legal protection against hate crimes; The establishment of the Asian American Legal Defense and Education Fund in 1974, which provides legal assistance and advocacy for Asian American communities and individuals.
49. The feminist civil rights movement— also known as the women’s liberation movement, emerged in the 1960s and 1970s with the goal of achieving gender equality and ending discrimination against women. Feminist activists organized protests, marches, and demonstrations to raise awareness of women’s issues, including unequal pay, reproductive rights, and domestic violence. They also lobbied for changes to laws and policies to protect women’s rights, such as the passage of Title IX, which prohibits sex discrimination in education. Feminism also inspired the development of women’s studies programs and academic research into gender inequality.
50. LGBTQ civil rights movement — emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, in response to widespread discrimination and violence against LGBTQ individuals. Activists organized protests, marches, and demonstrations to raise awareness of LGBTQ issues, and worked to change laws and policies that discriminated against LGBTQ individuals, such as the decriminalization of homosexuality and the legalization of same-sex marriage. The movement also led to the establishment of LGBTQ community centers, health clinics, and advocacy organizations, as well as academic research into LGBTQ issues. Despite significant progress in recent years, LGBTQ individuals continue to face discrimination and violence, and the movement for LGBTQ rights remains ongoing.
51. Youth Culture of the 1960s — a diverse and complex movement that encompassed a range of social, cultural, and political trends. While the counterculture movement and the hippie subculture are often associated with this era, it is important to note that not all young people embraced these ideals. In fact, there was a significant anti-hippie component to the Youth Culture of the 1960s, consisting of young people who rejected the counterculture’s emphasis on nonconformity and drug use, and instead embraced more traditional values and lifestyles. These “straights” saw the counterculture as a threat to the stability of society and sought to maintain more conservative norms. This diversity within the Youth Culture of the 1960s is a reminder that social movements are rarely monolithic, and that even within a given generation, there can be significant differences in values and beliefs.
52. The counterculture of the 1960s — At the core of this movement were the “hippies,” who embraced a countercultural lifestyle that rejected mainstream society’s values and norms. The hippies were known for their distinctive fashion, which included long hair, tie-dye clothing, and love beads. They also embraced psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, which they believed expanded their consciousness and allowed them to tap into higher levels of spirituality. One of the most famous slogans of the hippie movement was “Tune in, turn on, drop out,” which encouraged young people to reject the materialistic values of mainstream society and seek a more spiritual and meaningful existence. The hippies also embraced peace, love, and nonviolence, and were vocal opponents of the Vietnam War. While the hippie movement was popular with many young people in the 1960s, it was also met with significant opposition from other segments of society. Many conservatives viewed the hippies as a threat to traditional American values and criticized them for their unconventional lifestyles and drug use. Some even saw them as a danger to society and the American way of life. Opponents of the hippie movement believed that the hippies were promoting a destructive and irresponsible lifestyle that encouraged young people to drop out of society and avoid their responsibilities. They also argued that the drug use associated with the movement was dangerous and contributed to social decay. Despite these criticisms, the hippie movement had a profound impact on American culture and helped to usher in significant social and political changes. The movement’s emphasis on peace, love, and nonviolence helped to shape the public discourse around the Vietnam War and paved the way for a more progressive and inclusive society. However, it also left a lasting legacy of controversy and division that continues to shape American culture today.
53. The Anti-Vietnam War Protests — The anti-Vietnam War protests were a series of demonstrations and actions against the United States’ involvement in the Vietnam War that took place throughout the 1960s and 1970s. The protests began as a small movement of anti-war activists, but they quickly grew in size and intensity as the war dragged on and casualties mounted. One significant turning point in the protests occurred in 1970, after President Nixon announced that U.S. troops had invaded Cambodia. This expansion of the war sparked outrage and led to a surge in protests across the country. Many people felt that the United States was overstepping its bounds and that the war was becoming increasingly unjust. One of the most infamous events of the anti-war protests occurred on May 4, 1970, at Kent State University in Ohio. After several days of protests and unrest on campus, National Guardsmen were called in to restore order. The situation quickly escalated, and the guardsmen fired into a crowd of unarmed students, killing four and injuring nine others. The Kent State shooting became a symbol of the government’s heavy-handed response to the protests and helped to fuel further outrage and dissent. Many people saw it as evidence that the government was willing to use violence to suppress dissent and maintain its grip on power. Despite the government’s efforts to quell the protests, they continued to grow in size and scope throughout the 1970s. The anti-war movement played a key role in shaping public opinion and putting pressure on policymakers to end the war. Ultimately, it helped to pave the way for the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam and brought about significant changes in American foreign policy.
54. The environmental movement —emerged in the mid-20th century as a response to concerns about pollution, habitat destruction, and the impact of human activity on the natural world. One of the key events that helped to galvanize public support for environmental conservation was the publication of Rachel Carson’s book, “Silent Spring,” in 1962. Carson’s book was a landmark work of environmental writing that exposed the dangers of pesticides and other chemicals to wildlife and human health. It argued that the unchecked use of pesticides was causing widespread ecological damage and endangering many species, including birds and other wildlife. The book also criticized the chemical industry and government regulators for failing to adequately test and regulate the use of these chemicals. “Silent Spring” was a bestseller and became a powerful rallying cry for the environmental movement. It helped to inspire new laws and regulations to protect the environment, including the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970 and the passage of the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act. The environmental movement has continued to evolve and expand in the decades since “Silent Spring.” Today, it encompasses a wide range of issues and concerns, from climate change and renewable energy to biodiversity and conservation. The movement has been marked by both successes and setbacks, but its impact on public awareness and policy has been profound.
55. Reagan and Conservatism — Ronald Reagan was the 40th President of the United States, serving from 1981 to 1989. He is often associated with conservatism, a political ideology that emphasizes limited government, individual liberty, and free-market capitalism. Reagan’s conservatism was influenced by his background as a Hollywood actor and his experience as governor of California. He believed in the power of the free market and advocated for policies that would reduce government regulation and taxation. He also supported a strong national defense, believing that the US should maintain a dominant role on the world stage. During his presidency, Reagan pursued a number of policies that were consistent with conservative ideology. He initiated a program of tax cuts that reduced the top marginal tax rate from 70% to 28%, which he believed would stimulate economic growth and job creation. He also deregulated several industries, including transportation and telecommunications, to encourage competition and innovation. Reagan’s foreign policy was similarly conservative, emphasizing a strong military and a confrontational stance toward the Soviet Union. He increased defense spending, including the development of a missile defense system, and supported anti-communist movements in countries such as Nicaragua and Afghanistan. Reagan’s conservatism was also characterized by a focus on traditional values and a rejection of liberal social policies. He opposed abortion and supported school prayer, and his administration was criticized for its handling of the AIDS epidemic and its lack of support for LGBTQ rights. While Reagan’s policies were controversial at the time and remain the subject of debate, his legacy as a conservative icon has had a lasting impact on American politics. Many of the ideas and policies he championed, such as tax cuts and deregulation, continue to be important issues for conservatives today.
56. Conservative beliefs regarding the need for traditional social values and a reduced role for government — Conservative beliefs emphasize the importance of preserving traditional social values and institutions, including religion, family, and community. Conservatives generally view these values as essential for maintaining a stable and cohesive society, and they believe that changes to these values can lead to social decay and instability. In terms of the role of government, conservatives generally advocate for limited government and individual liberty. They believe that government should not interfere in the lives of individuals or businesses unless absolutely necessary. Conservatives believe that the free market is the most efficient way to allocate resources and create wealth, and that government intervention in the economy can lead to inefficiency and economic stagnation. Conservatives also tend to favor lower taxes and less government regulation of the economy. They believe that individuals and businesses should be free to pursue their own interests without interference from the government. They argue that excessive taxation and regulation can stifle economic growth and innovation. On social issues, conservatives tend to oppose progressive social policies, such as abortion rights, same-sex marriage, and transgender rights. They believe that these policies undermine traditional values and institutions and can lead to societal instability. They generally favor traditional social roles and gender norms, and believe that the family is the fundamental unit of society. Overall, conservative beliefs center around preserving traditional social values and institutions and limiting the role of government in the economy and in individuals’ lives.
57. The dramatic increase in international migration from Latin America and Asia in 1990s and 2000s — International migration from Latin America and Asia increased dramatically in the 1990s and 2000s due to a variety of factors, including economic, political, and social conditions in both sending and receiving countries. In Latin America, many countries experienced economic instability and political unrest in the 1980s and early 1990s, leading to high levels of poverty and unemployment. At the same time, the US and other developed countries were experiencing economic growth and a need for low-skilled labor. This created a strong incentive for people from Latin America to migrate to the US in search of better economic opportunities. In Asia, the economic growth of countries like China, India, and the Philippines led to a growing middle class and increased demand for skilled labor. However, many of these countries also experienced political instability, ethnic conflicts, and human rights abuses, leading some people to seek asylum or refugee status in other countries. The US and other developed countries also continued to attract skilled workers from Asia in industries like technology, finance, and healthcare. The increasing ease of travel and communication, as well as the growth of social media and online job platforms, also contributed to the rise in international migration from Latin America and Asia. Many migrants were able to connect with employers and family members in other countries and receive information about job opportunities and living conditions. However, international migration from Latin America and Asia also faced challenges and controversies, including increased border enforcement and deportations, concerns about the impact of immigration on the job market and social services, and debates over immigration policy and reform. These issues continue to be highly debated and politicized in the US and other countries.
58. The war on terrorism — On September 11, 2001, a group of terrorists associated with the Islamic extremist group al-Qaeda carried out coordinated suicide attacks against targets in the United States. They hijacked four commercial airplanes, with two of them flown into the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, causing their collapse, killing nearly 3,000 people. Another plane was flown into the Pentagon, near Washington D.C. in Arlington, Virginia. The fourth plane, United Airlines Flight 93, was targeted at Washington D.C. but crashed into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania after passengers attempted to overpower the hijackers. In response to the attacks, the United States launched the War on Terror, a global military campaign to combat terrorism and its supporters. The U.S. and its allies invaded Afghanistan, where the Taliban, which had harbored al-Qaeda, was in control. The U.S. also targeted other countries believed to harbor or support terrorists, including Iraq, which was invaded in 2003 based on the belief that it possessed weapons of mass destruction. The War on Terror resulted in significant military and civilian casualties, as well as controversy over its effectiveness and ethical implications. The War on Terror also resulted in significant changes in U.S. national security policy, including the creation of the Department of Homeland Security and increased surveillance and counterterrorism efforts both domestically and internationally.
59. America’s dependence on fossil fuels — America’s dependence on fossil fuels has been a longstanding issue that has received increased attention in recent years due to concerns about climate change and energy security. Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, have been the primary sources of energy in the United States for decades, powering transportation, electricity generation, and industrial processes. The dependence on these fuels has created a number of challenges for the country. For one, burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to global climate change. Additionally, the extraction and transportation of fossil fuels can lead to environmental degradation, such as oil spills, groundwater contamination, and air pollution. Moreover, America’s dependence on foreign sources of oil has made it vulnerable to supply disruptions and price spikes, which can have serious economic and national security consequences. As a result, efforts to transition to cleaner, more sustainable sources of energy, such as wind, solar, and nuclear power, have gained momentum in recent years. However, there are also challenges to reducing dependence on fossil fuels, such as the need for investment in infrastructure and the potential for job loss in the fossil fuel industry. Nonetheless, many see the transition to renewable energy as a necessary step to address the environmental, economic, and national security challenges associated with America’s dependence on fossil fuels.
60. The Cold War — a period of political and military tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, lasting from the end of World War II in 1945 to the early 1990s. It was characterized by a nuclear arms race, proxy wars, espionage, and a propaganda battle. The two superpowers competed for influence and power around the world, with the US promoting democracy and capitalism while the USSR supported communism. The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 was the closest the two sides came to direct conflict. The Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, leading to a shift in global power dynamics. The period left a lasting impact on international relations, shaping policies and alliances for decades to come.
61. The move to urban centers — began in the late 19th century and continued through the early 20th century, driven by industrialization and the growth of manufacturing and service industries in cities. This trend culminated in the 1920s, when for the first time in American history, more people lived in urban areas than in rural areas. The shift was facilitated by the expansion of railroads and streetcar systems, which made it easier for people to commute to work from the suburbs and surrounding areas. The growth of cities also brought about significant social and cultural changes, including the rise of new forms of entertainment and consumer culture, as well as new challenges related to housing, sanitation, and public health.
62. Pentagon Papers

The Period 7 Key Concepts (1898–1945)

TOPIC 7.2: Imperialism: Debates

• Imperialists cited economic opportunities, racial theories, competition with European empires, and the perception in the 1890s that the western frontier was “closed” to argue that Americans were destined to expand their culture and institutions to peoples around the globe.
• Anti-imperialists cited principles of self-determination and invoked both racial theories and the U.S. foreign policy tradition of isolationism to argue that the United States should not extend its territory overseas.

TOPIC 7.3: The Spanish American War

• The American victory in the Spanish–American War led to the U.S. acquisition of island territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific, an increase in involvement in Asia, and the suppression of a nationalist movement in the Philippines.

TOPIC 7.4: The Progressives

• Some Progressive Era journalists attacked what they saw as political corruption, social injustice, and economic inequality, while reformers, often from the middle and upper classes and including many women, worked to effect social changes in cities and among immigrant populations.
• The Progressives were divided over many issues. Some Progressives supported Southern segregation, while others ignored its presence. Some Progressives advocated expanding popular participation in government, while others called for greater reliance on professional and technical experts to make government more efficient. Progressives also disagreed about immigration restrictions.
• On the national level, Progressives sought federal legislation that they believed would effectively regulate the economy, expand democracy, and generate moral reform. Progressive amendments to the Constitution dealt with issues such as prohibition and women’s suffrage.
• Preservationists and conservationists both supported the establishment of national parks while advocating different government responses to the overuse of natural resources.

TOPIC 7.5: World War I: Military and Diplomacy

• After initial neutrality in World War I, the nation entered the conflict, departing from the U.S. foreign policy tradition of noninvolvement in European affairs, in response to Woodrow Wilson’s call for the defense of humanitarian and democratic principles.
• Although the American Expeditionary Forces played a relatively limited role in combat, the United States’ entry helped to tip the balance of the conflict in favor of the Allies.
• Despite Wilson’s deep involvement in postwar negotiations, the U.S. Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles or join the League of Nations.

TOPIC 7.6: World War I: Homefront

• Official restrictions on freedom of speech grew during World War I, as increased anxiety about radicalism led to a Red Scare and attacks on labor activism and immigrant culture.
• Immigration from Europe reached its peak in the years before World War I. During World War I, nativist campaigns against some ethnic groups led to the passage of quotas that restricted immigration, particularly from southern and eastern Europe, and increased barriers to Asian immigration.
• The increased demand for war production and labor during World War I led many Americans to migrate to urban centers in search of economic opportunities.
• In the Great Migration during and after World War I, African Americans escaping segregation, racial violence, and limited economic opportunity in the South moved to the North and West, where they found new opportunities but still encountered discrimination.

TOPIC 7.7: 1920s: Innovations in Communication and Technology

• New technologies and manufacturing techniques helped focus the U.S. economy on the production of consumer goods, contributing to improved standards of living, greater personal mobility, and better communications systems.
• New forms of mass media, such as radio and cinema, contributed to the spread of national culture as well as greater awareness of regional cultures.

TOPIC 7.8: 1920s: Cultural and Political Controversies

• By 1920, a majority of the U.S. population lived in urban centers, which offered new economic opportunities for women, international migrants, and internal migrants.
• After World War I, nativist campaigns against some ethnic groups led to the passage of quotas that restricted immigration, particularly from southern and eastern Europe, and increased barriers to Asian immigration.
• Migration gave rise to new forms of art and literature that expressed ethnic and regional identities, such as the Harlem Renaissance movement.
• In the 1920s, cultural and political controversies emerged as Americans debated gender roles, modernism, science, religion, and issues related to race and immigration.

TOPIC 7.9: The Great Depression

• The United States continued its transition from a rural, agricultural economy to an urban, industrial economy led by large companies.
• Episodes of credit and market instability in the early 20th century, in particular the Great Depression, led to calls for a stronger financial regulatory system.
• During the 1930s, policymakers responded to the mass unemployment and social upheavals of the Great Depression by transforming the U.S. into a limited welfare state, redefining the goals and ideas of modern American liberalism.

TOPIC 7.10: The New Deal

• Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal attempted to end the Great Depression by using government power to provide relief to the poor, stimulate recovery, and reform the American economy.
• Radical, union, and populist movements pushed Roosevelt toward more extensive efforts to change the American economic system, while conservatives in Congress and the Supreme Court sought to limit the New Deal’s scope.
• Although the New Deal did not end the Depression, it left a legacy of reforms and regulatory agencies and fostered a long-term political realignment in which many ethnic groups, African Americans, and working class communities identified with the Democratic Party.
• The increased demand for war production and labor during World War II and the economic difficulties of the 1930s led many Americans to migrate to urban centers in search of economic opportunities.

TOPIC 7.11: Interwar Foreign Policy

• In the years following World War I, the United States pursued a unilateral foreign policy that used international investment, peace treaties, and select military intervention to promote a vision of international order, even while maintaining U.S. isolationism.
• In the 1930s, while many Americans were concerned about the rise of fascism and totalitarianism, most opposed taking military action against the aggression of Nazi Germany and Japan until the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor drew the United States into World War II.

TOPIC 7.12: World War II: Mobilization

• The mass mobilization of American society helped end the Great Depression, and the country’s strong industrial base played a pivotal role in winning the war by equipping and provisioning allies and millions of U.S. troops.
• Mobilization provided opportunities for women and minorities to improve their socioeconomic positions for the war’s duration, while also leading to debates over racial segregation. Wartime experiences also generated challenges to civil liberties, such as the internment of Japanese Americans.
• Migration to the United States from Mexico and elsewhere in the Western Hemisphere increased, in spite of contradictory government policies toward Mexican immigration.

TOPIC 7.13: World War II: Military

• Americans viewed the war as a fight for the survival of freedom and democracy against fascist and militarist ideologies. This perspective was later reinforced by revelations about Japanese wartime atrocities, Nazi concentration camps, and the Holocaust.
• Military service provided opportunities for women and minorities to improve their socioeconomic positions for the war’s duration, while also leading to debates over racial segregation.
• The United States and its allies achieved military victory through Allied cooperation, technological and scientific advances, the contributions of servicemen and women, and campaigns such as Pacific “island-hopping” and the D-Day invasion. The use of atomic bombs hastened the end of the war and sparked debates about the morality of using atomic weapons.

TOPIC 7.14: Postwar Diplomacy

• The war-ravaged condition of Asia and Europe, and the dominant U.S. role in the Allied victory and postwar peace settlements, allowed the United States to emerge from the war as the most powerful nation on Earth.

The Period 8 Key Concepts (1945–1980)

TOPIC 8.2: The Cold War

• United States policymakers engaged in a cold war with the authoritarian Soviet Union, seeking to limit the growth of Communist military power and ideological influence, create a free-market global economy, and build an international security system.
• As postwar tensions dissolved the wartime alliance between Western democracies and the Soviet Union, the United States developed a foreign policy based on collective security, international aid, and economic institutions that bolstered non-Communist nations.
• Concerned by expansionist Communist ideology and Soviet repression, the United States sought to contain communism through a variety of measures, including major military engagements in Korea.
• The Cold War fluctuated between periods of direct and indirect military confrontation and periods of mutual coexistence (or détente).

TOPIC 8.3: The Red Scare

• Americans debated policies and methods designed to expose suspected communists within the United States even as both parties supported the broader strategy of containing communism.

TOPIC 8.4: Economy After 1945

• A burgeoning private sector, federal spending, the baby boom, and technological developments helped spur economic growth.
• As higher education opportunities and new technologies rapidly expanded, increasing social mobility encouraged the migration of the middle class to the suburbs and of many Americans to the South and West. The Sun Belt region emerged as a significant political and economic force.

TOPIC 8.5: Culture After 1945

• Mass culture became increasingly homogeneous in the postwar years, inspiring challenges to conformity by artists, intellectuals, and rebellious youth.

TOPIC 8.6: Early Steps in the Civil Rights Movement (1940s and 1950s)

• Seeking to fulfill Reconstruction-era promises, civil rights activists and political leaders achieved some legal and political successes in ending segregation, although progress toward racial equality was slow.
• The three branches of the federal government used measures including desegregation of the armed services and Brown v. Board of Education (1954) to promote greater racial equality.

TOPIC 8.7: America as a World Power

• Cold War competition extended to Latin America, where the United States supported non-Communist regimes that had varying levels of commitment to democracy.
• Americans debated the merits of a large nuclear arsenal and the military–industrial complex.
• Postwar decolonization and the emergence of powerful nationalist movements in Africa and the Middle East led both sides in the Cold War to seek allies among new nations, many of which remained nonaligned.

TOPIC 8.8: The Vietnam War

• Concerned by expansionist Communist ideology and Soviet repression, the United States sought to contain communism through a variety of measures, including major military engagements in Vietnam.
• Postwar decolonization and the emergence of powerful nationalist movements in Asia led both sides in the Cold War to seek allies among new nations, many of which remained nonaligned.
• Americans debated the appropriate power of the executive branch in conducting foreign and military policy. (War Powers Act and Pentagon Papers)

TOPIC 8.9: The Great Society

• Despite an overall affluence in postwar America, advocates raised concerns about the prevalence and persistence of poverty as a national problem.
• Liberalism, based on anti-communism abroad and a firm belief in the efficacy of government power to achieve social goals at home, reached a high point of political influence by the mid-1960s.
• Liberal ideas found expression in Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society, which attempted to use federal legislation and programs to end racial discrimination, eliminate poverty, and address other social issues.
• Immigrants from around the world sought access to the political, social, and economic opportunities in the United States, especially after the passage of new immigration laws in 1965.

TOPIC 8.10: The African American Civil Rights Movement (1960s)

• During and after World War II, civil rights activists and leaders, most notably Martin Luther King Jr., combated racial discrimination utilizing a variety of strategies, including legal challenges, direct action, and nonviolent protest tactics.
• Continuing resistance slowed efforts at desegregation, sparking social and political unrest across the nation. Debates among civil rights activists over the efficacy of nonviolence increased after 1965.
• The three branches of the federal government used measures including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to promote greater racial equality.
• A series of Supreme Court decisions expanded civil rights and individual liberties.

TOPIC 8.11: The Civil Rights Movement Expands

• Latino, American Indian, and Asian American movements continued to demand social and economic equality and a redress of past injustices.
• Feminist and LGBTQ+ activists mobilized behind claims for legal, economic, and social equality.
• Feminists who participated in the counterculture of the 1960s rejected many of the social, economic, and political values of their parents’ generation and advocated changes in sexual norms.

TOPIC 8.12: Youth Culture of the 1960s

• Although anti-communist foreign policy faced little domestic opposition in previous years, the Vietnam War inspired sizable and passionate anti-war protests that became more numerous as the war escalated and sometimes led to violence.
• Some groups on the left also rejected liberal policies, arguing that political leaders did too little to transform the racial and economic status quo at home and pursued immoral policies abroad.
• Young people who participated in the counterculture of the 1960s rejected many of the social, economic, and political values of their parents’ generation, introduced greater informality into U.S. culture, and advocated changes in sexual norms.

TOPIC 8.13: The Environment and Natural Resources from 1968 to 1980

• Ideological, military, and economic concerns shaped U.S. involvement in the Middle East, with several oil crises in the region eventually sparking attempts at creating a national energy policy.
• Environmental problems and accidents led to a growing environmental movement that aimed to use legislative and public efforts to combat pollution and protect natural resources. The federal government established new environmental programs and regulations.

TOPIC 8.14: Society in Transition

• In the 1960s, conservatives challenged liberal laws and court decisions and perceived moral and cultural decline, seeking to limit the role of the federal government and enact more assertive foreign policies.
• Public confidence and trust in government’s ability to solve social and economic problems declined in the 1970s in the wake of economic challenges, political scandals, and foreign policy crises.
• The 1970s saw growing clashes between conservatives and liberals over social and cultural issues, the power of the federal government, race, and movements for greater individual rights.
• The rapid and substantial growth of evangelical Christian churches and organizations was accompanied by greater political and social activism on the part of religious conservatives.

The Period 9 Key Concepts (1980–2015)

TOPIC 9.2 Reagan and Conservatism

• Ronald Reagan’s victory in the presidential election of 1980 represented an important milestone, allowing conservatives to enact significant tax cuts and continue the deregulation of many industries.
• Conservatives argued that liberal programs were counterproductive in fighting poverty and stimulating economic growth. Some of their efforts to reduce the size and scope of government met with inertia and liberal opposition, as many programs remained popular with voters.
• Policy debates continued over free-trade agreements, the scope of the government social safety net, and calls to reform the U.S. financial system.
• Conservative beliefs regarding the need for traditional social values and a reduced role for government advanced in U.S. politics after 1980.
• Intense political and cultural debates continued over issues such as immigration policy, diversity, gender roles, and family structures.

TOPIC 9.3 The End of the Cold War

• Reagan asserted U.S. opposition to communism through speeches, diplomatic efforts, limited military interventions, and a buildup of nuclear and conventional weapons.
• Increased U.S. military spending, Reagan’s diplomatic initiatives, and political changes and economic problems in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union were all important in ending the Cold War.
• The end of the Cold War led to new diplomatic relationships but also new U.S. military and peacekeeping interventions, as well as continued debates over the appropriate use of American power in the world.

TOPIC 9.4 A Changing Economy

• Economic productivity increased as improvements in digital communications enabled increased American participation in worldwide economic opportunities.
• Technological innovations in computing, digital mobile technology, and the internet transformed daily life, increased access to information, and led to new social behaviors and networks.
• Employment increased in service sectors and decreased in manufacturing, and union membership declined.
• Real wages stagnated for the working and middle class amid growing economic inequality.

TOPIC 9.5 Migration and Immigration in the 1990s and 2000s

• After 1980, the political, economic, and cultural influence of the American South and West continued to increase as population shifted to those areas.
• International migration from Latin America and Asia increased dramatically. The new immigrants affected U.S. culture in many ways and supplied the economy with an important labor force.

TOPIC 9.6 Challenges of the 21st Century

• In the wake of attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in 2001, the United States launched military efforts against terrorism and lengthy, controversial conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq.
• The war on terrorism sought to improve security within the United States but also raised questions about the protection of civil liberties and human rights.
• Conflicts in the Middle East and concerns about climate change led to debates over U.S. dependence on fossil fuels and the impact of economic consumption on the environment.
• Despite economic and foreign policy challenges, the United States continued as the world’s leading superpower in the 21st century.

Sidenote #1

Since publishing this post, various teachers have suggested that the following words, terms, and phrases be added to the list of 75.

• Island-hopping
• The D-Day invasion
• The dropping of the two atomic bombs
• Evangelical Christian churches and organizations
• (Post World War II) conflicts in the Middle East
• The War in Afghanistan
• The War in Iraq
• The decrease in manufacturing
• Reagan's opposition to communism