An Overview of the History of America on the World Stage (1800–2000)

Produced for my APUSH Students’ Year-End Review

Approximately 200 years ago, America sought to climb onto the world stage for the first time with the ultimate goal of positioning itself front and center and thus becoming a dominant force in international relations.

Some historians like to begin this story with Commodore Perry’s expedition to Japan in the 1850s, but this AP US History teacher does not take this approach.

This teacher prefers to start with the story of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan’s book “The Influence of Sea Power upon History.” That being said, this teacher also recognizes the significance of the Perry Expedition and will therefore describe it below (before moving onto a description of Thayer’s book and all the followed.)

Commodore Perry's Expedition to Japan (1853):

The expedition led by American Commodore Matthew Perry to Japan in 1853 was a significant step in America’s journey to becoming a global power. The expedition was motivated by the desire for access to new markets and resources, including coal and whale products. The whaling industry was a major source of oil, bones, and baleen, which were used for various non-industrial purposes, such as lamps, soap, and corsets. The growing demand for these products drove the expansion of the whaling industry. Perry’s mission to Japan aimed to open up trade with the isolated island nation and secure access to these resources. The success of the expedition helped establish America as a major global power and marked a significant moment in American imperialism and expansionism.

Alfred Thayer’s History of Sea Power (1890):

Alfred Thayer Mahan’s “The Influence of Sea Power Upon History” is a classic work of naval history and strategy, first published in 1890. It argues that control of the sea is a critical factor in determining a nation’s power and prosperity.

The Annexation of Hawaii (1898):

In 1898, the United States annexed the Kingdom of Hawaii as a territory, following a period of American influence and control over the Hawaiian Islands. This event marked a significant moment in American imperialism and expansionism.

The Spanish-American War and the Acquisition of Territory (1898):

The Spanish-American War was fought in 1898, resulting in the defeat of Spain and the acquisition of territories such as Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines by the United States. The war was a key moment in American imperialism and sparked debates about American expansionism and overseas interests.

The Suppression of the Filipino Revolt (1899)

The suppression of the Filipino Revolt refers to the conflict between the United States and the Philippines that took place from 1899 to 1902, after the US acquired the Philippines from Spain following the Spanish-American War. The conflict arose as a result of the Philippines seeking independence from American rule, leading to a brutal war in which both sides committed atrocities. The US eventually gained control of the Philippines and established a colonial government, suppressing the revolt and solidifying its position as a global imperial power. The suppression of the Philippine Revolt had lasting impacts on both the Philippines and the US, shaping the relationship between the two countries for decades to come.

The Open Door Policy (1899)

The Open Door Policy was a diplomatic policy proposed by the United States in the late 19th century, aimed at ensuring equal trading rights for all nations in China. The policy was a response to the growing influence of European powers in China and the threat of colonial domination, which threatened to limit US access to Chinese markets. The Open Door Policy called for equal trading opportunities for all nations in China and respect for Chinese sovereignty. The policy was formalized in several diplomatic notes sent by the US Secretary of State, John Hay, to the major European powers and Japan. The Open Door Policy helped to maintain the balance of power in Asia and preserve American economic interests in the region. It also became an important principle of American foreign policy and was invoked in future American interventions in Asia and other regions.

World War I and the Stay-Out Debate (pre-1914):

World War I broke out in 1914, with America initially remaining neutral in the conflict. However, public opinion and events such as the sinking of the Lusitania led to growing support for American involvement in the war, ultimately resulting in the US entering the conflict in 1917.

World War I

World War II catapulted America onto the world stage, positioning it front and center as a superpower. Prior to the war, the United States had embraced a policy of isolationism, largely avoiding entanglement in European conflicts and international affairs. However, the events of the war, especially the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, prompted a full-scale American engagement in the global conflict.

The United States emerged from World War II with a robust economy, strengthened by wartime production, which contrasted sharply with the devastated economies of Europe and Asia. This economic advantage, combined with its military success and the possession of atomic weapons, established the U.S. as a dominant global force. The post-war period saw America taking a leading role in establishing the United Nations and rebuilding war-torn Europe through the Marshall Plan, further solidifying its position on the world stage.

Moreover, the onset of the Cold War with the Soviet Union transformed the U.S. into the leader of the Western bloc, advocating for democracy and capitalism against communism. Through its military, economic, and diplomatic efforts, the United States not only played a pivotal role in shaping the post-war world order but also set the stage for its long-term leadership in global affairs.

World War II and the Stay-Out Debate (pre-1941):

Similarly, in the lead-up to World War II, there was significant debate in America about whether the country should stay out of the conflict. However, the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 galvanized public opinion in favor of American involvement, leading to the US entering the war.

America’s Victory in World War II

America’s victory in World War II marked the moment when the country undeniably not only stepped onto the world stage but also positioned itself front and center, establishing a role that it would maintain to the present. In this context, APUSH students should familiarize themselves with the words, terms, and phrases that follow, all relating to America’s global stance and how it employed dollar diplomacy, monetary policy, and moral diplomacy during the period from 1945 to 2000.

The Marshall Plan

The Marshall Plan provided financial and technical assistance to Western European countries in the aftermath of World War II. The plan provided over $13 billion in aid to Western European countries to help rebuild their economies and infrastructure, which had been devastated by the war. The Marshall Plan was seen as a way for the US to contain Soviet expansion in Europe and promote the spread of democracy and capitalism. It was highly successful and played a key role in the economic recovery of Western Europe, leading to the creation of the European Union and the eventual integration of the European economy. The Marshall Plan is widely regarded as one of the most important and successful foreign policy initiatives in American history, and its legacy continues to influence US foreign policy and international relations to this day.

NATO

NATO stands for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. It’s essentially a club of countries, mostly from North America and Europe, who have agreed to protect each other. Think of it like a group of friends who’ve promised to stand up for one another if anyone tries to cause trouble. It started back in 1949 when there was a lot of worry about the Soviet Union expanding its power in Europe after World War II. Originally, 12 countries joined hands in Washington, D.C., and now, the group has grown to 30 members. The main idea is if one country in this group is attacked, the others will treat it as an attack on them, too, and will help out. This pact is all about keeping peace and ensuring safety for everyone in the group across Europe and North America.

The International Monetary Fund

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization that was established in 1944 to promote international monetary cooperation, facilitate the balanced growth of international trade, and secure financial stability. It is a consortium of 189 member countries that work together to promote economic growth and stability, prevent financial crisis, and reduce poverty globally. The IMF provides financial assistance and advice to its member countries, particularly during times of economic difficulty, in exchange for policy changes and reforms. The organization also collects and analyzes economic and financial data, conducts research, and provides policy recommendations to its member countries. The IMF’s headquarters are located in Washington, D.C.

The World Bank

The World Bank is an international financial institution established in 1944 to promote economic growth and development in countries around the world. It is a member of the United Nations and operates as a consortium of 189 member countries, with a focus on providing loans, investment, and technical assistance to low- and middle-income countries. The World Bank also provides research and policy advice to its member countries, with the aim of reducing poverty, promoting economic growth, and improving standards of living globally. Its headquarters are located in Washington, D.C., and it is one of the largest sources of development financing in the world.

Berlin Airlift (1948–1949):

The Berlin Airlift was a US-led effort to provide supplies to the residents of West Berlin after the Soviet Union blocked land access to the city in 1948. The airlift was seen as a critical demonstration of US commitment to containing Soviet influence in Europe, and American and British aircraft made round-the-clock flights into the city to ensure its residents were not left without food and supplies. The airlift was ultimately successful in breaking the Soviet blockade, and the US and its allies continued to support West Berlin throughout the early years of the Cold War.

The Korean War (1950–1953):

After North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, the United States led a coalition of United Nations forces to intervene in defense of the South. The US saw the conflict as part of its broader effort to contain the spread of communism in Asia and around the world. American troops fought alongside South Korean forces against North Korean and Chinese forces, ultimately resulting in a ceasefire but not a resolution to the conflict.

The Cuban Missile Crisis.

The Cuban Missile Crisis, occurring in October 1962, stands as one of the most perilous moments in Cold War history, bringing the United States and the Soviet Union to the brink of nuclear war. The crisis began when American reconnaissance flights over Cuba revealed that the Soviet Union was installing nuclear missiles on the island, just 90 miles off the coast of Florida. These missiles had the capability to strike much of the Eastern United States within minutes, posing an unacceptable threat to American national security.

President John F. Kennedy responded by imposing a naval blockade, which he referred to as a “quarantine,” around Cuba to prevent further military supplies from reaching the island. He demanded the removal of the missiles already there and the destruction of the sites. For thirteen days, the world watched as the two superpowers stood on the edge of nuclear conflict. The crisis was a test of both Kennedy’s diplomacy and Khrushchev’s willingness to push the nuclear button.

The standoff ended when Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev agreed to remove the Cuban missiles in exchange for a U.S. promise not to invade Cuba and the secret removal of U.S. missiles from Turkey and Italy, which threatened the Soviet Union. The resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis required careful negotiation and was a turning point in the Cold War, leading to a thaw in U.S.-Soviet relations. It prompted the establishment of a direct communication link between Washington and Moscow, known as the “Hotline,” to prevent such crises in the future. The crisis highlighted the dangers of nuclear brinkmanship and the need for greater diplomatic engagement between nuclear powers.

The Vietnam War (1964–1973):

In the context of the Vietnam War, the U.S. took center stage in a complex conflict that deeply influenced its global standing and perception. The Ho Chi Minh Trail, critical for North Vietnamese logistics, symbolized the challenging guerilla warfare tactics that U.S. forces faced, showcasing the difficulty of projecting power across the globe. Protests back home highlighted domestic divisions and the global debate over America’s role in Vietnam, reflecting a nation at odds with itself and questioning its place on the world stage. The bombing of Cambodia and Operation Rolling Thunder, a sustained bombing campaign against North Vietnam, exemplified the extent of U.S. military intervention, while raising international concerns over the ethics and effectiveness of such actions. The Tet Offensive of 1968, despite being a tactical defeat for the Viet Cong, was a strategic blow to U.S. morale and public support for the war, underscoring the challenges of translating military might into political victory. The Gulf of Tonkin Incident and the subsequent Resolution dramatically escalated U.S. involvement based on questionable premises, highlighting the complexities of Cold War politics and the ease with which international incidents could escalate into major confrontations. Together, these elements paint a picture of a period when America’s military and diplomatic strategies were tested, leaving lasting impacts on U.S. foreign policy and its legacy on the world stage.

Intervention in Central and South America

The United States’ involvement in the overthrow of leaders in Chile and Guatemala, as well as its support for the Contras in Nicaragua, highlights its significant role and influence in Central and South America. These actions were part of a broader strategy during the Cold War to counteract Soviet influence and prevent the spread of communism in the Western Hemisphere. In Chile, the U.S. supported a coup in 1973 that led to the overthrow of President Salvador Allende and the rise of General Augusto Pinochet. In Guatemala, the CIA orchestrated a coup in 1954 to remove President Jacobo Árbenz, whose reforms were seen as a threat to American business interests and perceived as communist. In Nicaragua, the U.S. backed the Contras, a rebel group fighting against the Sandinista government, which had Soviet and Cuban support, in the 1980s.

These interventions were justified by the U.S. government as necessary for the protection of American interests and the prevention of Soviet expansion. However, they have been criticized for undermining democracy, violating international law, and leading to long-term instability and human rights abuses in the regions affected. On the world stage, these actions demonstrated America’s willingness to intervene in other nations’ affairs to preserve its geopolitical interests, sometimes at the expense of democracy and human rights. These episodes are critical for understanding America’s complex legacy in the Western Hemisphere and its approach to foreign policy during the Cold War.

Decolonization and the Cold War

Post-World War II, the U.S. emerged as a dominant force on the world stage, significantly shaping the decolonization process by supporting or opposing leaders in newly independent nations in Africa and Asia, based on their alignment with U.S. interests or those of the Soviet Union. This strategy was part of the broader Cold War dynamics, where the U.S. aimed to curtail Soviet influence and prevent the spread of communism by favoring anti-communist regimes. This approach not only influenced the political landscape in these regions but also played a pivotal role in determining the global balance of power. Understanding this policy and its implications is essential for comprehending the intricate web of international relations and the geopolitical chess game of the Cold War era.

Arms Race and Nuclear Proliferation

The nuclear arms race, a defining feature of the Cold War, saw the U.S. and the Soviet Union amassing vast arsenals of nuclear weapons, escalating global tensions and fears of nuclear conflict. Central to this era were efforts to prevent the proliferation and testing of these weapons through landmark agreements like the Partial Test Ban Treaty and the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT). These treaties aimed at capping the dangerous escalation of nuclear arms while still allowing each superpower to maintain a strategic balance. This delicate dance of deterrence and diplomacy on the world stage underscores the complexities of Cold War politics, where the pursuit of peace was balanced against the demands of national security and geopolitical rivalry.

Middle Eastern Policies and Energy Diplomacy

America’s engagement in the Middle East, especially its focus on oil and backing of certain countries such as Israel, has left a deep imprint on international dynamics and U.S. foreign policy. The 1973 oil crisis vividly illustrated the global economy’s vulnerability to Middle Eastern geopolitics, prompting increased American economic and military presence in the region. Actions like the Iran-Contra affair and support for Iraq in the Iran-Iraq War showcase the intricate and often controversial nature of U.S. interventions. These efforts were driven by a desire to secure energy resources and maintain influence in a strategically vital area, underscoring the complex interplay of economic interests, political alliances, and military strategies that America has navigated on the world stage.

Detente and the End of the Cold War

The policy of détente in the 1970s, aimed at easing the tensions between the superpowers, and the subsequent escalation of the arms race in the 1980s, leading to the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union, are pivotal. The strategies employed by Presidents from Nixon to Bush in negotiating arms reductions, opening dialogue with China, and supporting movements in Eastern Europe played significant roles in shaping the post-Cold War world order.

Operation Desert Shield and Desert Storm (1990–1991):

After Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990, the United States led a coalition of international forces to intervene and liberate Kuwait. The deployment of American troops to the region was seen as a key step in containing the spread of Saddam Hussein’s aggressive regime and ensuring stability in the Middle East. The US-led coalition launched Operation Desert Storm in January 1991, resulting in a decisive victory for coalition forces and the liberation of Kuwait. This deployment of American troops was a significant demonstration of US military power and commitment to containing the spread of hostile regimes around the world.

The Rise of Globalization (1990s)

In the 1990s, the United States emerged as a champion of globalization, advocating for a world more interconnected through trade, finance, and information technology. This era was marked by the promotion of free trade agreements, most notably the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994, which aimed to eliminate trade barriers between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico. The establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995 further underscored America’s commitment to global economic integration. These initiatives not only expanded U.S. economic influence but also reflected a belief in the spread of American values and practices as a blueprint for global prosperity.

America’s Technological Leadership and the Information Age

The United States solidified its position as a global leader in technology during the 1990s, largely thanks to the rapid expansion of the internet and the information technology sector. This period saw the emergence of Silicon Valley as a global center for innovation and the birth of tech giants that would come to dominate the digital economy. America’s technological advancements played a crucial role in shaping global communications, business, and culture, further extending its influence beyond traditional spheres of military and economic power into the daily lives of people around the world.

Humanitarian Interventions and Peacekeeping (1990s)

Throughout the 1990s, the United States engaged in several humanitarian interventions efforts, reflecting its post-Cold War commitment to maintaining global stability and promoting human rights. Notable among these was its involvement in the Balkans. The U.S. led NATO air campaigns in Bosnia (1995) and Kosovo (1999) to halt ethnic cleansing and restore peace, showcasing its willingness to use military force for humanitarian purposes. Additionally, American troops participated in peacekeeping operations in Somalia (1992–1994) as part of a UN mission to alleviate famine conditions, though the mission faced significant challenges.

These interventions were driven by a mix of moral obligation and strategic interests, highlighting the complex considerations behind America’s global engagements. While these actions were aimed at preventing humanitarian crises and stabilizing regions critical to international security, they also sparked debates about the limits and consequences of American interventionism.

How America Has Sought to Assert Its Presence on the World Stage

Since the 1800s, the US has sought to assert its presence on the world stage through a combination of monetary diplomacy, big stick diplomacy, and moral diplomacy.

• Monetary Diplomacy — refers to the ways in which the US used its economic power to influence international affairs. For example, the US dollar became the dominant currency in the world after World War II, giving the US significant control over the global financial system. This allowed the US to shape international economic policy and exert influence over other nations.
• Big Stick Diplomacy— refers to the US’s use of military power to advance its interests and assert its dominance. This approach was epitomized by President Theodore Roosevelt’s statement, “speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far.” This approach was demonstrated in US interventions in Latin America and the Caribbean, as well as in its use of military force in the Persian Gulf and other regions.
• Moral Diplomacy — refers to the ways in which the US used its values and ideals to shape international opinion and advance its interests. For example, the US has long championed human rights, democracy, and freedom, and has sought to promote these values through diplomacy, aid, and other means. This approach was demonstrated in US support for anti-apartheid efforts in South Africa, and its role in promoting democracy and human rights in Eastern Europe and other regions.

In conclusion, the US, from 1800–2000, has used a combination of monetary diplomacy, big stick diplomacy, and moral diplomacy to assert its presence on the world stage and advance its interests and values.

Times when America Stepped Back from the World Stage

From 1800 to 1991, there were periods in American history when the country stepped back from the world stage, focusing more on domestic affairs and reducing its involvement in international affairs. These periods were often characterized by a desire for isolation and a rejection of international entanglements.

For example, after the War of 1812, the US pursued isolationism, avoiding involvement in European conflicts and focusing on territorial expansion and economic growth.

A similar trend could be seen:

• In the late 19th century, as the country focused on industrialization and the settlement of the Western frontier.
• After World War I when the US once again turned inward, focusing on domestic issues and avoiding involvement in European affairs. This trend continued throughout the 1920s and into the early 1930s, as the country struggled with the effects of the Great Depression
• In the decades that followed World War II. Then too, the US experienced a period of disengagement from the world, as it struggled to contain the spread of communism and address domestic concerns. The end of the Cold War in 1991 marked a new era of American global engagement, as the country sought to assert its leadership in a rapidly changing world.

Sidenote #1

This overview of the History of America on the World Stage (1800–2000) was produced with the assistance of ChatGPT after many iterations.