What APUSH Students Need to Know about the History of Native Americans
From 1491 to the End of the Civil War
Pre-European Contact
Prior to European contact, Native American societies had spread across the vast expanse of the present-day United States, skillfully adapting to their diverse environments through innovative agricultural practices, resource management, and cultural development.
Southwest Native American Societies
Known for their cliff dwellings and pueblos, these societies in present-day Arizona and New Mexico developed intricate irrigation systems to support corn cultivation in the arid environment.
Northeast Native American Societies
Iroquois Confederacy: Comprising several tribes, the Iroquois in the woodlands of the Northeast practiced slash-and-burn agriculture, cultivating the “Three Sisters” (corn, beans, and squash) in nutrient-rich soil.
Native American Societies of the Great Plains
While primarily known as nomadic hunters, especially of the American bison, some Plains tribes also engaged in farming along river valleys, growing crops like corn when the environment allowed.
Northwest Native American Societies
Inhabiting the Pacific Northwest, the Northwest Native American societies relied on the abundant salmon and other natural resources, developing complex fishing techniques and managing forests for food and materials.
Mississippi River Valley Native American Societies
The Mississippi River Valley Native American societies were characterized by large, mound-building societies, with a strong reliance on agriculture, particularly the cultivation of corn, which supported large urban settlements.
Southeast Native American Societies
The societies developed agriculture that included corn cultivation, along with hunting and gathering, allowing for settled communities and complex political structures.
1492–1754
During this period, Native American societies faced dramatic shifts due to the arrival of Europeans, leading to significant cultural, demographic, and territorial changes. The following key terms highlight the major interactions and consequences for Native Americans from the time of Columbus’s arrival to the end of the French and Indian War.
Columbian Exchange
The Columbian Exchange was a massive transfer of plants, animals, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds following Columbus’s voyages. It brought devastating epidemics to Native American populations, who suffered enormous losses because they had no previous exposure or resistance to diseases like smallpox and influenza. This biological exchange drastically altered the demographic and cultural landscapes of Native societies.
Impact of European Horses and Weapons
The introduction of European horses and weapons to Native American societies catalyzed significant changes in their way of life. Horses, brought over by the Spanish in the 16th century, revolutionized Native American mobility, transforming hunting methods, particularly in the pursuit of bison on the Great Plains, and altering the dynamics of warfare and trade. Tribes with access to horses, such as the Comanche and Apache, became formidable powers, dominating vast territories and trade routes. Similarly, European firearms introduced new technology of conflict, shifting the balance of power among tribes and against European settlers and traders. These introductions precipitated a reorganization of social structures, economies, and territorial claims, profoundly shaping the history of the continent’s indigenous peoples.
Encomienda System
Under the encomienda system, the Spanish forced Native Americans into a system of labor, exploitation, and cultural destruction. It was a tool of colonial management that decimated indigenous populations, stripping them of their land and autonomy, and disrupting their ancestral lineage and social structures.
Casta System
The Spanish casta system imposed a rigid social order that classified people in the colonies by race. This system marginalized Native Americans, relegating them to lower social statuses, while also creating a new mixed-race population, the mestizos, through intermarriage, which further complicated their social dynamics.
Pueblo Revolt (1680)
The Pueblo Revolt was a successful uprising by the Pueblo people against Spanish colonial rule in the Southwest. It was a rare instance of Native American triumph, as they expelled the Spanish for over a decade, regaining control of their homeland and reaffirming their cultural and political independence.
French Trade Alliances
The French cultivated trade alliances with Native American tribes, focusing on the fur trade in the Great Lakes and along the Mississippi River. The alliances between the French and various Native American tribes were often based on mutual interests and respect, which contrasted with the more exploitative relationships fostered by other colonial powers. The French often took Native wives and adopted indigenous practices, which led to less direct land conflict
Fur Trade in the Great Lakes and Ohio River Valley
The fur trade in the Great Lakes and Ohio River Valley became a cornerstone of the economy for many Native tribes, fostering alliances with European traders. While it brought wealth and goods, it also led to dependency on European trade items, over-hunting of fur-bearing animals, and drew Native Americans into European conflicts, often exacerbating intertribal tensions and violence.
King Philip’s War (Metacom’s War)
King Philip’s War, a destructive conflict from 1675 to 1678, pitted Native American tribes against English settlers in New England. The war resulted in the decimation of several Native tribes and the enslavement or displacement of survivors. It marked a significant loss of Native American power in the region, drastically reducing their ability to resist future colonial expansion.
1754–1844
This period in Native American history is characterized by increased pressure from European settlers, territorial losses, and the struggle for sovereignty and survival amidst the growing expansion of the United States.
French and Indian War (1754–1763)
The French and Indian War, part of the global Seven Years’ War, involved numerous Native American tribes, some aligning with the French and others with the British. The war’s outcome expanded British territory in North America but also led to policies attempting to limit colonial expansion, which were largely ignored, exacerbating tensions between settlers and Native American tribes.
Pontiac’s War (1763–1766)
Pontiac’s War was a conflict initiated by Native American tribes, led by the Ottawa leader Pontiac, against British rule in the Great Lakes region after the French and Indian War. Dissatisfied with British postwar policies and encroachment on their lands, Native Americans launched attacks on British forts and settlements. The war featured fierce battles and led to a military stalemate, prompting the British to adopt more diplomatic relations with Native tribes. The conflict resulted in the Proclamation of 1763, which aimed to limit colonial expansion to mitigate further frontier tensions.
Proclamation of 1763
Issued by the British crown, this proclamation attempted to stabilize the western frontier by prohibiting colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. It was meant to protect Native American lands but was largely ineffective due to the relentless westward push of settlers, leading to further encroachment on indigenous territories.
The Impact of the California Missions
The establishment of Spanish missions in California had a significant impact on local Native American populations, often leading to forced labor, disease, and cultural disruption. The first mission was built in California in 1769, seven years before the Declaration of Independence
American Revolution (1775–1783)
During the American Revolution, Native American tribes faced a complex decision on whether to support the British or the Patriots, with some tribes choosing sides in hopes of protecting their homelands. The resulting war and the subsequent victory of the United States led to significant land cessions and continued displacement of Native peoples.
American Revolution (1775–1783)
The American Revolution led to further division and land loss for Native Americans, as the new United States government was less inclined to negotiate and more interested in expansion. During the war, some supported the British as they hoped to halt American settlers’ westward expansion. The war’s end saw the United States demanding significant land cessions from Native tribes.
The Northwest Ordinance (1787)
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 significantly affected Native American tribes as it established a framework for American expansion into the Northwest Territory, an area that included present-day Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin, and parts of Minnesota. While the ordinance promised to respect Native American rights and property, it ultimately facilitated U.S. encroachment on indigenous lands. The creation of new states and the influx of settlers led to the displacement of Native peoples and the undermining of their sovereignty. Despite its provisions for fair dealings, the ordinance’s implementation often resulted in broken treaties and land loss for Native American nations.
Northwest Indian War (1785–1795)
Following the American Revolution, Native American tribes in the Ohio Valley resisted United States expansion efforts, leading to the Northwest Indian War. Despite initial Native successes, the conflict ended with the Treaty of Greenville, which forced them to cede much of present-day Ohio.
Louisiana Purchase (1803)
The United States’ acquisition of the Louisiana Territory from France doubled the nation’s size and set the stage for westward expansion into lands that many Native American tribes called home. This purchase disregarded Native American sovereignty and led to numerous future conflicts over land rights.
War of 1812
The War of 1812 was pivotal for Native Americans, as it was both a cause and a turning point in their history. The U.S. perceived British support for Native American tribes as a direct threat to westward expansion, which was one of the causes for the war. Native leaders like Tecumseh joined forces with the British, aiming to protect their lands. However, their defeat weakened Native American resistance against American settlers, leading to a significant loss of territory and influence in the Northwest, profoundly reshaping the Native American future.
Indian Removal Act (1830)
The Indian Removal Act, signed by President Andrew Jackson, authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River to lands in the west. This policy led to the Trail of Tears, where thousands of Native Americans died during the forced marches to “Indian Territory.”
Trail of Tears (1838–1839)
The forced removal of the Cherokee Nation and other tribes from their ancestral homelands in the Southeast to designated “Indian Territory” west of the Mississippi. The brutal journey resulted in the deaths of approximately 4,000 Cherokee people due to disease, harsh weather, and poor provisions.
Seminole Wars (1816–1858)
A series of conflicts in Florida between the United States and the Seminole tribe, who resisted removal. The wars were costly for the United States and the Seminoles, resulting in much loss of life and the eventual removal of most Seminoles from Florida.
Black Hawk War (1832)
A brief conflict in Illinois and Wisconsin between the United States and Native Americans led by Black Hawk, a Sauk leader. The war resulted in a decisive U.S. victory and the forced removal of many Native Americans from the Upper Mississippi region.
1844–1865
During this period, Native American history was marked by continued conflict and displacement as the United States expanded westward.
Manifest Destiny
The ideology of Manifest Destiny, which held that U.S. expansion across the American continent was both justified and inevitable, drove much of the policy and action during this time. It led to the annexation of vast territories and justified the displacement of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands.
Mexican-American War (1846–1848)
The conclusion of the Mexican-American War resulted in the United States acquiring territories in the present-day Southwest. This expansion brought U.S. settlers into direct conflict with the Native American populations already residing there, leading to further displacement and violence.
California Gold Rush (1848–1855)
The discovery of gold in California in 1848 triggered a massive influx of settlers into the region. The resulting social and environmental upheaval had devastating effects on the local Native American populations, leading to loss of lands, destruction of ecosystems, and a dramatic decline in population due to violence and disease.
Reservation System
In the 1850s, the U.S. government began to establish a reservation system that aimed to confine Native American tribes to specific areas, often on lands far less desirable and less fertile than their traditional territories. This policy was intended to free up land for American settlers and often resulted in poverty and dependency for Native tribes.
Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)
This treaty between the United States and several Native American nations attempted to ensure peace along the Oregon Trail and allowed for the establishment of military posts and roads while recognizing tribal territories in the Great Plains. However, the discovery of gold and subsequent settler encroachment led to the treaty’s breakdown.
Dakota War of 1862
Also known as the Sioux Uprising, this conflict in Minnesota resulted from tensions over failed treaty obligations by the United States and led to widespread suffering and the eventual hanging of 38 Dakota men in the largest one-day execution in U.S. history.
Homestead Act (1862)
The Homestead Act encouraged Western migration by providing settlers with 160 acres of public land. In exchange, homesteaders paid a small fee and were required to complete five years of continuous residence before receiving ownership. This act led to the widespread appropriation of lands that were traditionally inhabited and used by various Native American tribes, drastically reducing their territory and leading to numerous conflicts.
Pacific Railway Act (1862)
This act provided federal support for the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad, which facilitated faster movement of settlers and goods across the country. The railroad’s construction cut through Native American lands, leading to significant alterations in the landscape, the bison herds’ decimation (a vital resource for Plains tribes), and further encroachment on indigenous territories.
Sand Creek Massacre (1864)
The Sand Creek Massacre was a brutal attack by a Colorado U.S. militia on a peaceful village of Cheyenne and Arapaho, resulting in the death of many Native Americans, including women and children. This event exemplified the extreme violence and treachery faced by Native Americans during this era.
Long Walk of the Navajo (1864)
The forced relocation of the Navajo people by the U.S. government to a reservation in New Mexico, known as the Long Walk, resulted in the death and suffering of many Navajo due to the long distance, harsh conditions, and poor provisions.
The Civil War
While the Civil War primarily focused on the conflict between the North and South, it also had indirect effects on Native Americans, such as diverting federal attention and resources away from Native American affairs and leading to increased encroachment on their lands.
Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)
Shortly following the Civil War, the second Treaty of Fort Laramie was signed, which recognized the Black Hills as part of the Great Sioux Reservation. However, this treaty would later be violated following the discovery of gold, leading to renewed conflicts.
