What APUSH Students Need to Know about the History of Slavery

1607–1850

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EARLY DAYS OF SLAVERY (1607–1700)

• Arrival of First African Slaves in Jamestown, Virginia: Twenty Africans arrived in Jamestown, initially treated similarly to indentured servants but eventually subjected to lifelong enslavement.
• Barbados Slave Code: This comprehensive set of laws was established in the English colony of Barbados to manage the large slave population. It was one of the first slave codes and had a profound influence on American slavery laws.
• South Carolina and the Barbados Connection: South Carolina, initially settled by English colonists from Barbados, adopted a similar set of slave codes in 1696, known as the “Slave Code of 1696,” which was modeled after the Barbados Slave Code. These laws were designed to establish control over the enslaved population, dehumanize slaves, and give absolute authority to slave owners. The code was a response to the growing reliance on African slaves in the colony’s rice and indigo plantations and was intended to prevent rebellion and ensure a stable labor force.
• Bacon’s Rebellion: This uprising in Virginia resulted in wealthy landowners seeing danger in having a labor force composed of both indentured servants, who were mostly poor Europeans, and enslaved Africans working side by side. The rebellion was partly fueled by the shared discontent among these groups. In its wake, the elite class began to favor racial slavery as a means to divide the labor force along racial lines, making it harder for them to unite in opposition. This shift led to a gradual turning away from the system of indentured servitude, as lifelong slavery based on race became the dominant system. This provided the landowning class with a more controllable and permanent labor force, reducing the risk of future alliances between servants and slaves that could threaten the social and economic order.
• Slave Work in the North: In the Northern colonies, slaves worked as artisans, blacksmiths, carpenters, and in some cases, as printers. In rural areas, enslaved people could be found assisting in small-scale farming operations, and they were often employed in households as domestic servants. They also worked in the ports, such as New York, playing a significant role in maritime industries, including shipbuilding, loading, and unloading ships, and other dockside activities.
• Slave Work in the South: Slaves were predominantly utilized in the agricultural sector. The early Southern economy was built on the production of cash crops such as tobacco, rice, and indigo, which required labor-intensive cultivation and processing.

SLAVERY ENTRENCHED AND CHALLENGED (1700–1800)

• Stono Rebellion: One of the largest slave uprisings before the American Revolution in South Carolina. It led to a tightening of strict slave laws.
• Declaration of Independence: The founding document proclaimed “all men are created equal,” yet slavery contradicted this ideal.
• War of Independence: During the American Revolutionary War, slaves played different roles. Many slaves ran away to join the British army, which promised them freedom if they fought against the American colonists. This offer was known as Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation. Some slaves also fought for the American side because they were promised freedom or other rewards if the Americans won. However, not all slaves who fought got their freedom afterwards.
• Northwest Ordinance: This law prohibited slavery in the new Northwest Territory.
• Constitutional Convention Compromises: The Three-Fifths Compromise: Each slave was counted as three-fifths of a person for taxation and representation. The Slave Trade Compromise: Allowed the importation of slaves for another 20 years.
• Slave Work in the North: Slaves continued to work in maritime industries in port cities, but there was a noticeable shift as Northern economies started to diversify into manufacturing and trade, which did not rely as heavily on slave labor. The roles of slaves as artisans, blacksmiths, and carpenters became more pronounced as urban centers grew.
• Slave Work in the South: Slaves primarily engaged in tobacco cultivation, which was labor-intensive but still developing in terms of the scale of production and the establishment of plantation infrastructure. During this early period, the use of slaves was also more diverse, with some working in household service, artisanal trades, or alongside indentured servants.
• Abolition in the North: By 1800, most Northern states had either abolished slavery or set measures in motion to gradually do so.

EXPANSION, INNOVATION, AND RISING TENSIONS (1800–1850

• Invention of the Cotton Gin: This invention transformed Southern agriculture. Cotton’s dominance surged, and so did the demand for slave labor.
• Louisiana Purchase: The U.S. acquired vast territories, reigniting the debate over slavery’s expansion.
• Prohibition of the International Slave Trade: In accordance with a provision in the U.S. Constitution, Congress banned the importation of slaves into the country starting in 1808. While this did not end slavery within the nation, it marked the official end of the U.S.’s participation in the international slave trade.
• Steamboat and Steam Locomotive: Revolutionized transportation. The construction and operation of railways and ports increased the demand for labor, including slaves. In terms of steamboats, slaves were forced to do the painting, cleaning, and repairing these vessels. They also handled the strenuous work of loading and unloading cargo. For the railroads, slaves were compelled to lay tracks, involving clearing land, excavating, placing ties, and securing rails.
• Compromise of 1820 (Missouri Compromise): Missouri was admitted as a slave state, and Maine as a free state. Slavery was prohibited in the Louisiana Territory north of a certain parallel.
• Second Great Awakening: A religious revival that played a significant role in the abolitionist movement. Many viewed slavery as a sin.
• Turner’s Rebellion: A violent slave revolt in Virginia that resultd in Southern legislatures passing laws that said slaves couldn’t learn to read or write and they weren’t allowed to hold religious meetings where they could preach. This was because Turner, who was educated and a preacher, had used these skills to organize the rebellion. The fear of more revolts made slave owners across the South enforce these rules strictly and silenced any talk about getting rid of slavery.
• Underground Railroad: A covert network developed to help slaves escape to freedom.
• Gag Rule: Prevented all discussion related to slavery in the House of Representatives.
• Mexican-American War: Following the Mexican-American War, the United States gained a large area of land from Mexico known as the Mexican Cession. This territory included present-day California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of Colorado, New Mexico, and Wyoming. The addition of this vast region reignited fierce debates over whether slavery should be allowed to expand into these new western territories
• Free Soil Party: Founded in 1848, the Free Soil Party’s main goal was to prevent the expansion of slavery into the western territories. It argued that free men on free soil comprised a morally and economically superior system to slavery. The party’s slogan, “Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men,” reflected its stance against slavery’s expansion, though not necessarily against slavery itself. The emergence of this party was a clear sign of the increasing political polarization over the issue of slavery in the United States.
• The “Necessary Evil” Theory: Proponents of the “Necessary Evil” viewpoint acknowledged that slavery was inherently wrong, but they argued that it was an unavoidable institution given the economic, social, and political circumstances of the time. They believed that slavery was a regrettable but essential mechanism to maintain the economic structure, especially in the South where the agrarian economy was heavily dependent on slave labor. This perspective was often used to justify the continuation of slavery as a temporary measure, suggesting that it would naturally phase out as society progressed or as alternative labor systems developed.
• “Positive Good” Theory: By the mid-19th century, as abolitionist sentiments grew in the North, many Southern leaders began to defend slavery not just as a necessary evil but as a “positive good.” This argument was famously promoted by politicians like John C. Calhoun. They contended that slavery was beneficial for both slaves, who received care and guidance, and the economy, particularly in the Southern states where it was integral to the agricultural sector.
• Impact on Southern Ideology: This argument became a staple of Southern pro-slavery rhetoric, suggesting that the institution was a civilizing force that provided economic stability and introduced Christianity to African slaves. It was used to justify the continuation and expansion of slavery as the United States grew westward and as a counter to the increasing calls for abolition.
• Slave Work in the South: Between 1800 and 1850, slave labor in the South was primarily focused on agricultural work to support the booming cotton industry, spurred by the invention of the cotton gin. Enslaved people toiled on large plantations, performing all tasks related to the cultivation and processing of cotton, from planting to picking and ginning. In addition to cotton, they continued to work on tobacco, rice, and sugar plantations. The ban on international slave trade led to a domestic trade, with slaves being sold and transported across state lines to meet labor demands in new territories. Furthermore, slaves were employed in construction for the expanding infrastructure, such as railroads and ports, which facilitated the transport of cotton and other goods.
• “Uncle Tom’s Cabin:” Uncle Tom’s Cabin is inextricably linked to the history of slavery in the United States as it provided one of the most powerful cultural critiques of the institution. Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel, by humanizing the enslaved and showcasing the brutal realities of their lives, brought the moral atrocities of slavery into the living rooms of Americans and international readers alike. Its publication in 1852 galvanized the abolitionist movement, swaying public opinion in the North against the Fugitive Slave Act and the institution of slavery itself. The book’s widespread popularity and its role in stoking the fires of anti-slavery sentiment made it a significant factor in the increasing sectional tensions of the 1850s. Stowe’s vivid storytelling not only illuminated the inhumanity of slavery but also helped to hasten the onset of the Civil War, a conflict that would ultimately lead to slavery’s abolition. Thus, “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” is more than a novel; it is a pivotal artifact of American history that reflected and influenced the course of events surrounding slavery’s demise.

See anything that’s been left out, placed in the wrong category, or that was inaccurately stated?

Sidenote #1

After publishing this post and having it circulated widely among various APUSH and AP African American Studies teachers, one educator recommended the inclusion of critical terms such as ‘slave societies’ and ‘societies with slaves,’ along with ‘slave codes’ and a ‘comparison to indentured servitude.’ For the 1800–1850 section, they also suggested adding topics like the 1829 publication of David Walker’s Appeal, the formation and influence of the American Colonization Society, the rise of the Abolitionist Movement, the impactful life and works of Frederick Douglass, and the foundational role of the American Anti-Slavery Society.”

Slave Societies and Societies with Slaves

In the early years of American colonization, different regions developed distinct relationships with the institution of slavery. Students should understand the difference between slave societies, where slavery was central to the economy and social structure, and societies with slaves, where slavery existed but was not the defining element of social and economic life.

An example that illustrates the difference between “slave societies” and “societies with slaves” can be seen when comparing the Southern colonies to the Northern colonies in early America.

In the Southern colonies, such as South Carolina and Virginia, the economy was heavily dependent on agriculture — specifically the cultivation of cash crops like tobacco and rice. These labor-intensive crops required a large workforce, which was provided by enslaved Africans. The social and economic structures of these colonies were deeply intertwined with slavery; thus, they were considered “slave societies.” In these societies, slavery was central to their way of life, with laws and social norms built around the institution of slavery.

On the other hand, in the Northern colonies, such as New York and Pennsylvania, while slavery did exist, it was not the foundation of the economy. These colonies had more diverse economies that included trade, small farms, and emerging industries. Enslaved people were present but in much smaller numbers, and they were employed in a variety of roles, such as domestic servants, artisans, and laborers. These colonies are examples of “societies with slaves,” where slavery was present but did not define the entire social and economic structure. Laws and social practices regarding slavery were often less harsh and less central to the identity of the colony.

Slave Codes

The legal framework that supported slavery, known as slave codes, was a critical mechanism by which slave societies maintained control over enslaved populations. These codes regulated the behavior of slaves and the interactions between enslaved people and free individuals, revealing the dehumanizing nature of the institution.

One of the most infamous sets of slave codes were the “Black Codes” of Virginia, established in the 1700s. The Virginia Slave Codes of 1705 were particularly draconian. They laid out the status of enslaved people and further codified the institution of racial slavery. For example, the codes declared that all black, mulatto, and Native American people, all non-Christian persons brought into Virginia by ship, were to be considered slaves. They also stripped away legal rights from slaves, such as the ability to own property, testify in court against a white person, or sign contracts. Additionally, the codes cruelly defined the legal support for the corporal punishment of slaves, clearly delineating the lack of autonomy and the brutal treatment that enslaved people were subject to under the law.

Comparison to Indentured Servitude

Slavery and indentured servitude were both forms of labor in early America, but they were not the same. Indentured servants, often Europeans, worked for a set number of years to pay off their passage to America and then were free. African slaves, on the other hand, were forced into a lifetime of labor with no promise of freedom, based on their race. Over time, America moved away from using indentured servants and increasingly relied on permanent, racial slavery.

David Walker’s Appeal

In 1829, David Walker, a free Black man, wrote a forceful pamphlet called “David Walker’s Appeal.” In it, he called for slaves to fight for their freedom and for the end of slavery in America. His words were bold and direct, urging an immediate push for abolition and equality.

Moving into the 19th century, David Walker’s “Appeal” in 1829 marks a significant moment in the history of abolition. His passionate plea for an immediate end to slavery and the empowerment of African Americans was a catalyst that intensified the abolitionist movement.

The Emergence of the Abolitionist Movement

The period from 1800 to 1850 saw the emergence and growth of the abolitionist movement, transitioning from a focus on gradual emancipation to a more radical stance demanding immediate abolition. This movement’s evolution is a key narrative in American history, reflecting the growing sectional tensions that would eventually lead to the Civil War.

The American Colonization Society

The American Colonization Society, which proposed the resettlement of free African Americans to Africa, represents the complexities and contradictions of early antislavery efforts. Its establishment and activities must be examined to understand the broader context of antebellum debates over race and slavery.

Frederick Douglass and the American Anti-Slavery Society

Frederick Douglass, who escaped from slavery, rose to prominence as a powerful voice advocating for the abolition of slavery. He joined forces with the American Anti-Slavery Society, a group committed to the immediate cessation of slavery throughout the United States. Douglass’s eloquent speeches and writings vividly detailed the brutal realities of slave life and argued fiercely for the rights of African Americans, significantly influencing public opinion and the abolitionist movement.

Sidenote #2

An AP African American Studies teacher has also suggested adding the following

The Original Draft of the Declaration of Independence

The original draft of the Declaration of Independence, penned by Thomas Jefferson, included a paragraph that vehemently condemned the transatlantic slave trade and slavery itself, laying the blame at the feet of King George III for imposing the institution upon the colonies. This passage was a scathing indictment of the forced transportation and sale of African slaves, which Jefferson described as "cruel war against human nature itself." However, this paragraph was excised from the final document due to pressure from Southern delegates who were from slaveholding colonies and whose economies were deeply intertwined with slavery. The removal of this section revealed the deep divisions and moral compromises on the issue of slavery that the American colonies were willing to make in pursuit of a unanimous declaration of independence.

The U.S. Constitution (as opposed to mere mention of the Constitutional Convention)

The U.S. Constitution, while a groundbreaking document of governance, also enshrined protections for the institution of slavery, despite its principles of liberty and equality. Through provisions like the Three-Fifths Compromise, which allowed states to count enslaved individuals as three-fifths of a person for purposes of taxation and representation, the Constitution gave disproportionate power to slaveholding states. It also included the Fugitive Slave Clause, which required that escaped slaves be returned to their owners, and it delayed any potential ban on the transatlantic slave trade until 1808. These clauses and compromises ensured that slavery would remain integral to American political and economic life, embedding the institution within the fabric of the new nation and sowing the seeds for future conflict.